Method Article

Assessing Disaster Resilience of Concrete with Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles

DOI:

10.3791/68246

⸱

November 14th, 2025

 ,  ,  , 
1Department of Environmental Sciences, São Paulo State University | UNESP, 2Brazilian National Center for Monitoring and Alert Natural Disasters (Cemaden), 3Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Federal University of Goiás, 4Municipal Faculty Professor Franco Montoro| FMPFM, 5Adventist University Center of São Paulo| UNASP-EC

In This Article

Summary

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This protocol describes the assessment of whether applying titanium dioxide to concrete enhances its physical properties, thereby increasing its resistance to the effects of natural disasters caused by extreme events.

Abstract

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In recent decades, the occurrence of extreme events has intensified across diverse regions of the world, inflicting substantial impacts on economies, safety, and the quality of life of affected populations. This reality underscores the urgent requirement for innovative solutions to mitigate such damages. Within this framework, nanotechnology has emerged as a promising paradigm, with nanoadditives distinguished as effective agents for enhancing the durability, impermeability, and mechanical strength of construction materials. Nanoparticles such as titanium dioxide (TiO2), carbon nanotubes (CNTs), silica, clay, and copper (Cu) have been associated with improvements in durability, strength-to-weight ratio, stability, and seismic resilience. The integration of these nanomaterials fosters densification of the concrete matrix by reducing voids and capillaries, thereby enhancing waterproofing and hindering the infiltration of deleterious substances. The present study offers an experimental investigation complemented by a comprehensive literature review, including water-absorption simulations and assessments of surface integrity in both treated and untreated materials. The objective is to evaluate the contributions of nanoadditives to safety, durability, and sustainability in the face of challenges posed by climate change. Results indicate that a 1% addition of nanoTiO2 yields the highest mechanical strength, while higher concentrations tend to reduce benefits due to particle agglomeration. This finding underscores the importance of optimizing nanoparticle content to enhance concrete resilience against natural disasters, contributing to sustainable construction practices. The comparison with copper-based additives reveals that, despite some relative strength gain over time, copper formulations fall short in mechanical performance, highlighting nanoTiO2 as a more promising agent for improving concrete durability in disaster-prone environments. Given the growing frequency of environmental disasters, the adaptation of civil construction through the sustainable incorporation of nanomaterials necessitates careful consideration of synthesis processes, long-term stability, and potential ecological impacts associated with nanoparticle interactions with biotic and abiotic environmental components.

Introduction

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Disasters are extreme events defined by the occurrence of natural phenomena capable of posing risks to society, as illustrated by floods, landslides, earthquakes, and other such events, which may also be influenced by anthropogenic factors1. In the wake of the climate change that occurred in 2024, African nations such as Kenya, together with Asian countries including Indonesia and Afghanistan, experienced severe flooding, resulting in hundreds of fatalities and thousands of homeless people2. From 1998 to 2017, floods affected more than two billion people worldwide3. According to Marengo et al., between 2013 and 2022, more than 2.2 million homes in Brazil were damaged, impacting over 4.2 million individuals across 2,640 municipalities. Flooding persists owing to a combination of natural, social, and climatic drivers, and has generated losses on the order of USD 10 billion4.

Given the increasing severity and widespread risk of these events in recent years, researchers and professionals have been seeking management strategies and new technologies aimed at fostering resilient communities, in parallel with industry advances toward greater sustainability5,6. Among the promising materials for civil engineering applications aimed at increasing disaster resilience are titanium dioxide nanoparticles (nanoTiO2), which have demonstrated numerous advantages for essential construction materials, including concrete7,8.

The use of nanomaterials in the construction industry is now widespread across a range of applications. They are employed in paints and coatings to enhance resistance to UV degradation and attack by aggressive substances. These materials contribute to greater durability, reduced permeability, improved thermal insulation, and enhanced fire resistance. For instance, when incorporated into asphalt, TiO2 interacts with polluting gases, converting them into less harmful compounds. Applied to glass, TiO2 can render the surface self-cleaning, as the oxide layer degrades organic molecules and facilitates the removal of inorganic dust. Ultraviolet radiation interacts with the self-cleaning glass layer, further breaking down molecules and removing organic dust. The development of new building materials is essential to render structures more resilient to environmental stresses, thereby reducing disaster impacts and enhancing safety.

Titanium dioxide, renowned for its whiteness and stability, first achieved broad public visibility in the 1970s, primarily as a pigment in concrete and other construction materials9. During that period, TiO2 was employed to create high-quality, durable finishes on exterior surfaces. Beginning in the 1990s, a new direction emerged with the discovery of its photocatalytic properties, which markedly expanded TiO2's applications within the construction sector10.

In order to fully understand the relevance and applicability of TiO2 in civil construction, it is essential to outline its properties and relate them to practical benefits, such as flexural, tensile, and compressive strength, along with durability indicators such as electrical resistivity, permeability, and resistance to sulfate attack, carbonation, and freeze-thaw cycles. Experimental results reported by Ali Nazari et al. indicate that concrete flexural strength increases with the addition of TiO2 nanoparticles up to a concentration of 3.0%. Although these represent direct advantages, the photocatalytic and bactericidal properties of TiO2 should also be considered as significant long-term economic benefits11.

The ability of advanced materials to maintain stability in the presence of external environmental factors, including catastrophic scenarios such as weathering, climate change (e.g., increased CO2 levels), and floods, is highly pertinent today. Nevertheless, widespread adoption is viable only if production and application are ecologically sustainable12,13,14. This concern is particularly salient given that cement manufacturing accounts for approximately 5%-8% of global CO2 emissions, a substantial portion of the civil construction sector's footprint, while cement remains its mainstay and global per capita consumption stands at roughly 20 billion metric tons15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22.

In this context, the present manuscript reports the development and application of an experimental procedure to evaluate the distinctive properties of nanoTiO2, with emphasis on parameters such as the mechanical strength of treated concrete. The study is underpinned by a focused literature review that examines the potential benefits of these nanoparticles, regulatory considerations, sustainable production, and their relevance in the context of catastrophic scenarios.

Aspects of titanium dioxide in concrete
Titanium dioxide nanoparticles (nanoTiO2) encompass sizes from 1 to 100 nanometers and typically assume spherical or ellipsoidal morphologies. Their nanoscale dimensions confer a markedly increased surface area, which substantially enhances their reactivity23. These nanoparticles have gained prominence in the realm of cement-based composites owing to their distinctive characteristics and diverse applications24,25,26. NanoTiO2 has emerged as a versatile component in cementitious formulations, exhibiting properties that render it suitable for a wide range of industrial uses11,16,18,20.

This nanomaterial is employed for several reasons, including favorable chemical properties, low toxicity, cost-effectiveness, anti-corrosive characteristics, and photocatalytic capabilities27,28. NanoTiO2 can augment the resistance of concrete to handling, a factor amplified by photocatalysis that occurs under ultraviolet (UV) light. It possesses the ability to decompose organic substances - such as pollutants, dirt, and microorganisms - present within concrete29. Furthermore, nanoTiO2 can generate highly reactive free radicals, endowing the surface with cleansing properties, and it also protects concrete from damage caused by atmospheric agents that accelerate wear, such as nitrogen oxides30.

NanoTiO2 particles can assume several crystalline forms - rutile, anatase, and brookite - each with distinct properties. Anatase and rutile are the most common polymorphs of TiO2, while brookite's properties are not yet fully understood, which poses challenges for industrial application31,32,33,34. Because of TiO2's photocatalytic properties, anatase is widely used in water and air purification systems, where it is highly effective at decomposing organic and inorganic impurities. Rutile finds extensive use in the textile, plastics, and paint industries, and the rutile form is also widely employed in sunscreens and other cosmetics due to its UV-blocking capabilities35,36.

Titanium dioxide nanoparticles (nanoTiO2) offer versatile applications in construction materials, such as concrete, enhancing performance and introducing new functionalities. Among their notable attributes are antimicrobial and self-cleaning properties, which hold promise for mitigating urban air pollution through the transformation of polluting gases37,38,39. When exposed to sunlight, nanoTiO2 can decompose organic substances into water and carbon dioxide, with the resulting byproducts subsequently removed by water40.

In addition, the pozzolanic activity of nanoTiO2 at the exterior interface of concrete can augment durability, although it may be associated with increased water absorption and potential implications for workability41. It is also important to note that nanoTiO2 particles may agglomerate within the cement matrix, potentially impairing performance42,43,44. Regarding gas degradation, concrete incorporating TiO2, for instance, in pavement applications, has the potential to reduce tropospheric O3 levels45.

TiO2's photocatalytic capabilities enable the formation of hydroxyl radicals (OH) and superoxide ions (O2-) in the presence of water under ultraviolet irradiation. These highly reactive species oxidize and decompose dirt and inorganic contaminants. The photocatalytic action of TiO2's also lowers the contact angle of water on surfaces, enhancing self-cleaning performance46. This self-cleaning property contributes to reduced airborne impurities, potentially lowering pollutant concentrations associated with greenhouse gas-driven climate risks.

NanoTiO2 also contributes to increases in the flexural and compressive strength of materials. In terms of compressive strength, nanoTiO2 reduces porosity, refines pore structure, densifies the matrix, and promotes hydration. However, achieving these benefits requires careful control of particle loading and effective homogenization to prevent agglomeration and the formation of weak zones that could initiate cracks47. TiO2 acts as a filler that densifies the cementitious composite, thereby reducing porosity. This outcome is linked to (i) the acceleration of C-S-H gel formation, (ii) a reduction in the available space for Ca(OH)2 development, yielding smaller crystallites, and (iii) the creation of a more homogeneous microstructure with reduced porosity. Appropriately calibrated additions of TiO2 can also enhance the bending strength of cement composites48.

NanoTiO2 has been shown to significantly enhance the durability of cementitious composites by reducing porosity and water permeability, and by imparting protection against chemical attacks and environmental factors such as ultraviolet radiation. This benefit, however, hinges on the adequate dispersion of the nanoparticles, since their high surface energy and van der Waals interactions at the nanoscale tend to promote agglomeration37. When properly homogenized, the incorporation of nanoTiO2 improves impermeability, electrical resistivity, and resistance to freeze-thaw cycles and sulfate attack, underscoring its potential for construction intended to withstand catastrophic events. Nevertheless, at high concentrations, these advantages may be diminished or even reversed49,50.

In the context of TiO2 applications in civil construction for extreme scenarios such as floods, storms, and temperature extremes, it is essential to balance the benefits of nanoTiO2 with the potential risks associated with its use. For instance, the photocatalytic properties that can enhance urban air quality and assist in cleaning and waste remediation after a catastrophe must be weighed against possible inhalation hazards and lung toxicity51,52,53.

Copper-based additives improve waterproofing and are low-cost and easily manipulated. Nanometric titanium dioxide produces water-repellent concrete and increased compressive strength. Currently used on a large scale, TiO2 is not intended for end users but has potential for future construction. Compressive strength testing compares the results of samples with various mixtures to analyze the advantages and disadvantages of copper additives and titanium dioxide.

Concrete impregnated with nanoTiO2 exhibits higher solar reflectance (greater albedo), contributing to milder ambient temperatures, mitigating the urban heat island effect, and, practically, reducing building temperatures and yielding energy savings. This benefit extends to reduced consumption of cleaning products54,55.

Attributes such as opacity, durability, antibacterial potential, UV resistance, and the capacity to accommodate alternative raw materials within concrete - thereby reducing reliance on cement and aggregates - signal strong incentives for nanoTiO2 deployment. These prospects are complemented by the potential for improvements to green roofs and surfaces that promote more efficient rainwater drainage10,56,57,58.

On the longevity and durability of concrete incorporating nanoTiO2, contemporary studies indicate enhanced resistance to ultraviolet radiation, as well as improved resilience against chemical attack and weathering59. These improvements yield direct economic benefits by reducing the frequency of repairs and replacements, thereby lowering material consumption and waste over time. Beyond these immediate financial advantages, the use of nanoTiO2 also offers indirect savings related to the production, transportation, and disposal of concrete, contributing to a reduced carbon footprint associated with its life cycle33,60.

Given the environmental implications of the sulfate and chloride processes used to extract ilmenite and rutile, the chloride process is regarded as the less harmful option. This route employs chlorine gas to convert rutile into TiCl4, which is subsequently oxidized to TiO2, producing fewer deleterious byproducts than the sulfate process59. TiO2-containing products yield stable, non-leaching residues at the end of their life cycle, thereby presenting a lower environmental risk. This environmental profile complements the enhanced resistance and durability of materials, particularly under catastrophic conditions, underscoring the value of experimental evaluations in advancing construction technologies.

A study carried out by Mohajerani et al. demonstrates that the properties of concrete vary with the nanomaterials applied61. Nanoparticles of silica, titanium, carbon, iron, and aluminum are introduced to concrete to reinforce mechanical strength, promote rapid and enhanced hydration, induce a higher degree of hydration, impart self-cleaning capabilities, improve mechanical durability, prevent cracking, increase compressive strength, and boost abrasion resistance. These benefits are highly desirable in construction materials, contributing to the greater resilience of structures against natural disasters.

Therefore, the objective of this work is to validate, through the splitting tensile test on cylindrical specimens, the enhancement of mechanical strength in concrete achieved by incorporating titanium dioxide nanoparticles into the mix. This research aims to advance the development of more resilient materials, particularly in the context of natural disasters where concrete structures are subjected to extreme conditions and require superior durability and performance.

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Protocol

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The methodological basis employed is the Brazilian test, which determines indirect tensile (splitting) strength via the diametral section of vertically loaded cylindrical specimens. This procedure, developed by Professor Lobo Carneiro in 1943 for cementitious materials, involves applying two concentrated, diametrically opposed compressive forces to a cylinder, thereby generating uniform tensile stresses perpendicular to the diameter along the test section62.

The test employed five groups, designated A, B, C, D, and E, corresponding respectively to: a control group; concrete with 1% NanoTiO2; concrete with 2% NanoTiO2; concrete with 3% NanoTiO2; and concrete with 3% copper-based plasticizer additive. Each group was subdivided into three curing-time subgroups: 7 days (1), 14 days (2), and 28 days (3). Thus, the study comprises a total of fifteen specimens, labeled as A1-A3, B1-B3, C1-C3, D1-D3, and E1-E3. Figure 1 depicts the specimen used in this study.

1. Specimen preparation

  1. Prepare four groups of specimens using a concrete mix of Portland CPII cement, crushed stone, medium-washed river sand, and water in the ratio 1:2:3 (cement:sand:gravel), maintaining a water/cement ratio of 0.5. For each 3.63 kg specimen, use approximately 558.46 g of cement, 1,116.92 g of sand, 1,675.38 g of gravel, and 279.23 g of water.
    NOTE: Use this formula for test specimens without any additives. For specimens with titanium dioxide, add it during the mixing of the dry ingredients (cement, sand, and gravel). Once the mixture is homogeneous, add water. For specimens with a plastic additive, dilute it in the mixing water before adding it to the mixture.
  2. Homogenize all components thoroughly to obtain the most uniform mass possible, then cast the mixture into the molds. Inspect the mixture for signs of aggregate segregation, free-water accumulation, or staining from unmixed material. Ensure uniform consistency to guarantee representative results.
  3. Mold the test specimens in cylindrical metal forms 10 cm in diameter and 20 cm in height. Fill the molds properly, ensuring the concrete volume reaches the designated level with uniform distribution, without excess or deficiency that could compromise the test. Completely fill the interior, preserving the mold geometry and avoiding voids.
  4. Produce Sample A in accordance with ABNT NBR 6136, ABNT NBR 5738, and ABNT NBR 573963,64,65. Use this sample as the negative control, devoid of any additives, to serve as the baseline for comparison with the other specimens.
  5. Produce Sample B by incorporating 1% NanoTiO2 (approximately 36.3 g) into the concrete mix. Exercise care during preparation, as TiO2 tends to agglomerate; therefore, distribute the nanoparticles evenly across the mass to ensure homogeneity among sample sets.
  6. Produce Sample C by incorporating 2% NanoTiO2 (approximately 72.6 g) into the concrete mix. Exercise care during preparation, as TiO2 tends to agglomerate; therefore, distribute the nanoparticles evenly across the mass to ensure homogeneity among sample sets.
  7. Produce Sample D by incorporating 3% NanoTiO2 (approximately 108.9 g) into the concrete mix. Exercise care during preparation, as TiO2 tends to agglomerate; therefore, distribute the nanoparticles evenly across the mass to ensure homogeneity among sample sets.
  8. Produce Sample E by incorporating 3% copper-based plasticizer additive (approximately 108.9 g) into the concrete mix. Use this sample as the positive control to compare the effect of the plasticizer additive on concrete performance relative to the other samples.
  9. Store the samples in an area with controlled conditions, without being subject to environmental influences, to await the curing time.

2. Curing process

  1. Cure the specimens in a humidity-controlled area at a temperature of (23 ± 2) °C and relative humidity of at least 95% for 24 h. Then, submerge the specimens in lime-saturated water maintained at the same temperature (23 ± 2) °C for continued curing over the designated period in accordance with ABNT NBR 573863.
  2. Measure the weight of each sample after curing; ensure that each sample mass on average 3.63 kg.
  3. Specimens conditioning at room temperature (23 ± 2) °C as follows:
    7 days: samples A1, B1, C1, D1 and E1;
    14 days: samples A2, B2, C2, D2 and E2;
    28 days: samples A3, B3, C3, D3 and E3.
    NOTE: It is important to highlight that the percentages in this method are related to the mass of the test specimen, Table 1.

3. Compressive strength testing

NOTE: Perform the compression strength test using the Concrete Testing Machine (Press), with a nominal and calibrated range of 0-100 tons. Calibrate the equipment by indirect measurement, relating pressure to piston area, using a digital manometer and digital caliper. Zero the equipment and ensure alignment before testing.

  1. Subject each specimen to an axial compression test in a universal tensile/compression testing machine.
  2. Ensure the load cell capacity is compatible with the specimen dimensions and that a digital control system for monitoring and recording the applied load is in place.
  3. Continue the test until failure, recording the maximum supported load.
  4. Compute the compressive strength (fc) using:
    fc = Fmax / A
    where: fc = compressive strength (N/mm2), Fmax = maximum recorded load (N), A = test specimen cross-sectional area (mm2). 1 N/mm2 = 1 MPa
  5. Conduct the compressive-strength test by positioning each cylindrical specimen (100 mm × 200 mm) vertically at the center of the hydraulic press, ensuring proper contact with the loading plates. Ensure correct seating of the loading surfaces in accordance with ABNT NBR 5739:201864.
    1. Apply the axial load continuously and without impact, at a rate of 0.45 ± 0.15 MPa/s66,67. Repeat for the three specimen sets: control, TiO2-doped, and copper-based additive.
  6. Record all values systematically for comparison among sample sets.
  7. Compare the results to assess the behavior of the samples.
  8. Conclude the test.
    NOTE: Figure 2 presents the specimens subjected to the compression test after 28 days of curing. Figure 3 displays the compressive strength values obtained for each tested sample.

4. Material residues disposal

NOTE: All waste generated during the testing process shall be disposed of in accordance with ABNT NBR 10004 and ABNT NBR 15116, as well as with the guidance of local authorities responsible for environmental protection norms and standards, including68,69,70.

  1. Separately collect concrete fragments, dust, and any materials containing TiO2 or plasticizing additives. Prioritize the reuse or recycling of solid waste at licensed facilities for construction and demolition waste processing, in line with the technical requirements for recycled aggregates.
  2. For non-recyclable waste, package the material in sealed containers to prevent the dispersion of fine particles and direct it to industrial landfills authorized by the competent environmental agency.
    NOTE: Under no circumstances should waste be released into stormwater systems, natural water bodies, or unlicensed disposal site71.

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Results

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The values obtained for each sample in the compressive strength test are presented in Table 2 and Figure 3. Table 2 indicates the sample identification, its curing time, and the maximum load supported in MPa. In Figure 2, it is possible to visualize a subset of samples after the compression test. The values recorded are presented in Figure 3.

Numerous studies indicate a r...

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Discussion

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In the analysis of the results, which are graphically illustrated in Figure 3, it is evident that samples containing a copper-based plastic additive exhibited the lowest compressive strength. These values are inferior to those of the control group, which was prepared without any additive. Figure 3 further shows that, after 28 days of curing, the specimens achieve the best performance in the compression test.

The compression tests reve...

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Disclosures

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The authors declare that they have no financial or material interests related to the research described in this article.

Acknowledgements

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Thanks to the company RAID Technology and Construction for the time and equipment provided to carry out the resistance test for modeling concrete specimens, accompanied by the care and specialized technical support in the area.

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Materials

List of materials used in this article
NameCompanyCatalog NumberComments
Concrete test specimensJCRBBloco 20Two units were used for the test
Analytical scaleShimadzuATX224R
Compressive Strength Test EquipmentSoloTest1504100
Plasticizer additiveNovaTintasNovaLiga
Precision scaleSartorius3862 MP8-1 
Titanium Dioxide R110FRAC ChemicalFR10ZZ2400905RTRutile titanium dioxide pigment
Ultrasonic cleanerCristófoli2.5L

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