Tissue engineering combines cells, porous materials (scaffolds), and bioactive factors to regenerate biological tissues or even complete organs. Biomaterials with different chemical natures in pure form or functionalized; in combination with other materials in the form of composites or nanocomposites, nanomaterials, particles or nanoparticles; have been proposed to produce a broad range of scaffold types. Nevertheless, precise design of material properties such as biodegradation, mechanical performance, surface properties, pore geometry, and porosity suitable for specific cells, remains a challenge. In this regard, a wide variety of methods have been reported to manufacture scaffolds with controlled physico-chemical properties and morphology for tissue engineering applications. Static and dynamic bioreactors that provide external stimulation, such as tensile or compression strength, electric stimulation, or flow rate; have become useful tools for 4D cell culture to provide an in vitro environment mimicking in vivo conditions to regulate cell growth, differentiation, and tissue development.

Examples of methods to be included in this collection are: Methods for fabrication of scaffolds (among them gas foaming, fibre mesh sintering, solvent evaporation, polymerisation in the presence of a solvent, porogen method or leaching technique, freeze-extraction, freeze-drying, tissue or organ decellularization, electrospinning, and 3D printing and bioprinting); principles and practice in bioreactor cell culture; bioreactor design for specific tissue engineering applications (bone, muscle, cartilage, vascular, nerves, etc.); or complete organ regeneration (bladder, kidney, heart, etc.).