Name: mendel’s pea plant inheritance ratios
Uploaded: 2026-08-26T08:20:18.443Z
Duration: 1 min 50 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

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HIgh School

Life Science

LS.10

LS.10.c

Monohybrid Crosses

- [Anlatıcı] Bezelye bitkisini kullanarak Gregor Mendel, başta monohibrit çaprazlama, kabuk rengi gibi tek özelliği farklı olan organizmalar arasında çiftleştirme deneyleri yapmıştır.
 Örneğin burada orijinal ebeveyn jenerasyonu P0'da bir ebeveynin tüm kabukları yeşildir.
 Genotipi yeşil kabuk rengi aleli için homozigottur, büyük GG harfleriyle gösterilir.
Diğer ebeveynin sadece sarı kabukları vardır ve sarı kabuk aleli için homozigottur, küçük gg harfleriyle gösterilir.
 Çaprazlama sonrasında ilk yavrular, F1 jenerasyonunun ilk çocukları aynı görünür, aynı yeşil kabuk fenotipini gösterirler.
 Bu sonuç, tek biçimlilik prensibini gösterir ve yeşilin iki renk arasındaki baskın özellik olduğu anlaşılır.
F1 jenerasyonunun bitkileri kendi kendine döllenmeye bırakıldığında yavruları F2 bitkilerinin bazıları yeşil kabuklu, bazıları sarı kabuklu olur, bunun oranı üçe birdir.
 Bu da sarının gerçekten ilk ebeveynlerden görülmeden alınan çekinik biçim olduğunu doğrular,

Griffiths, Anthony J.F., Jeffrey H Miller, David T Suzuki, Richard C Lewontin ve William M Gelbart. 2000. Genetik Analize Giriş. New York: W.H. Freeman. [<a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK22098/" target="__blank">Kaynak</a>]

Miko, Ilona. 2008. "Test Haçları." Doğa Eğitimi 1 (1): 136. [<a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/test-crosses-585" target="__blank">Kaynak</a>]

monohibrit Çaprazlama

<h4>Genel Bakış</h4>

1850'lerde ve 1860'larda Gregor Mendel, bezelye bitkilerinde monohibrid çaprazlama yaparak kalıtımı araştırdı. Gerçek olan iki bitkiyi geçti-farklı özellikler için üreme. Gözlemlerine dayanarak Mendel, organizmaların her bir ebeveynden biri olmak üzere her bir özelliğin iki kopyasını miras aldığını ve baskın özelliklerin resesif özellikleri gizleyebileceğini öne sürdü. Bu sonuçlar genetikte iki temel ilkenin temelini oluşturdu: tekdüzelik İlkesi ve ayrımcılık yasası.

<h4>Monohibrid Çaprazlama Baskın ve Resesif Özellikleri Ortaya Çıkarır</h4>

1850 ve 1860'ları kapsayan sekiz yıl boyunca, Gregor Mendel adında bir Avusturyalı papaz bezelye bitkileri ile seminal üreme deneyleri gerçekleştirdi. Bu deneyler, kalıtımın temel ilkelerini gösterdi ve ona modern genetiğin babası takma adını verdi. Mendel'in deneyleri, her biri tek bir gen odağı tarafından belirlenen iki özellikten biri olarak kendini gösteren yedi bezelye bitkisinin özelliklerine odaklandı.

Mendel, bezelye bitkilerinin bir kısmı kendi kendine döllenme ile çoğaldığında, yavrularının her zaman aynı özelliği gösterdiğini fark etti. Başka bir deyişle, gerçek üremelerdi. Örneğin, sarı baklalı bazı bitkiler sadece sarı baklalı yavrular üretti. Sarı baklalar için doğru olan diğer bitkilerle kesiştiğinde, bu bitkiler sadece sarı baklalarla yavrular üretti. Benzer şekilde, Mendel, sadece yeşil baklalarla yavrular üreten gerçek üreme bezelye bitkilerini gözlemledi.

O zamanlar, kalıtsal özelliklerin ebeveyn özelliklerinin bir karışımı olduğu düşünülüyordu. Bunun yerine Mendel, yeşil ve sarı baklalar gibi ayrık fenotipleri gözlemledi. Yavrularda karışan özelliklerden ziyade, ayrık faktörlerin (şimdi genler olarak bilinir) ebeveynlerden miras alındığını ve yavrularda ayrı kaldığını öne sürdü. Bir özelliğin bir nesli atladığı durumlarda Mendel, görünür özelliğin sadece başka bir kalıtsal özelliğin varlığını maskelediğini öne sürdü. Başka bir deyişle, kalıtım parçacıktır ve baskın özellikler resesif özellikleri gizler. Hangi özelliğin baskın olduğunu belirlemek için Mendel monohibrid çaprazlamalar yaptı. Monohibrid çaprazlamalar, tek bir özellik ile farklılık gösteren iki gerçek üreme organizmasını birleştirir. Bu tür haçların tüm yavruları monohybrids veya heterozigotlardır ve baskın özelliği sergilerler.

Örneğin, Mendel, sarı baklalar için doğru olan bezelye bitkilerini, baskın bakla rengini belirlemek için yeşil baklalar için doğru olan bezelye bitkileriyle çaprazladı. Bu ebeveyn nesli (P0), hepsi yeşil baklalı monohybrid olan ilk evlada nesli (F1) olan yavruları üretti. Bu bulguları tekrar tekrar gözlemleyerek, yeşil kapsüller baskın bir özellik olarak ortaya çıktı ve Mendel'in tekdüzelik prensibini gösterdi: tek bir gen özelliği için heterozigotlar aynı fenotipi gösterdi.

<h4>Ebeveyn Allelleri Gametlere Rastgele Dağıtılır</h4>

Mendel daha sonra F1 bitkilerinde kendi kendine döllenmeyi indükledi ve F2 üretimini üretti. F2 yeşil baklalı bezelye bitkileri, sarı baklalı bitkileri 3:1 oranında aştı. Mendel, yedi bezelye bitkisinin özelliklerinin her biri için bu 3:1 kalıtım modelini tekrar tekrar gözlemledi.

Mendel’in ayrışma yasası bu yinelenen oranı açıklar. Ayrışma yasası, bir organizmanın iki gen kopyasından birini her gamete (yumurta veya sperm hücresi) dağıttığını belirtir. Önemli olarak, bu dağılım rastlantısaldır, öyle ki bir heterozigot (Gg), baskın (G) ve resesif (g) alelleri olan gametler üretme olasılığı eşittir.

Eğer heterozigot bir öz-(Gg x Gg), ebeveyn alel dört olası şekillerde birleştirebilirsiniz: (GG) anne G babaG anne g baba G (Gg) döller, (gg) anneg(Gg) anne G baba g baba g. Üç sonuç yeşil kapsüller (GG ve Gg genotipleri) üretir ve biri 3:1 oranında sarı kapsüller (gg genotipi) üretir. Bu nedenle, eğer tüm sonuçlar eşit derecede muhtemel ise, kendi kendini dölleyen heterozigotlar, sarı baklalı her biri için yeşil baklalı üç yavru üretecektir. Bu, Mendel'in gözlemlediği fenotipik orana oldukça yakındır ve önerilen ayrımcılık yasasını doğrular.

<h4>Baskın Özellikler Her Zaman Yaygın Değildir</h4>

Yeşil baklaların aksine, yeşil bezelye resesiftir, sarı bezelye ise baskındır. O zaman neden düzenli olarak yeşil bezelye ile karşılaşıyoruz? Kısacası, insanlar yeşil bezelyeleri sarı olanlara tercih ederler. Mendel ve %25 olarak; göstermek deneyler s, homozigot aynı özellik, öz veya fenotip, döllenmiş veya diğer homozigot ile geçti ile yavrular üretmektedir. Çiftçiler sarı bezelyeleri mahsul haçlarından hariç tutmaya devam ederse, sadece yeşil bezelye üretmeye devam edecekler. Bu örnek bir başka önemli noktayı göstermektedir: baskın özellikler mutlaka en yaygın özellikler değildir. Zararlı baskın özellikler, örneğin, karşı seçilebilir.

Monohibrit Çaprazlama

Genel bakış

1850'lerde ve 1860'larda Gregor Mendel, bezelye bitkilerinde monohibrit çaprazlamalar yaparak kalıtımı araştırdı. İki bitkiyi geçti ...

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mendel’s pea plant inheritance ratios

Gregor Mendel used pea plants to study how traits are passed from parents to offspring. His breeding experiments in the 1850s and 1860s showed that inheritance follows clear patterns. He crossed true-breeding plants that differed in one trait and found that dominant traits can hide recessive traits.

Mendel focused on seven pea plant traits, and each trait had two forms controlled by a single gene locus. He noticed that true-breeding plants always produced offspring with the same phenotype, or visible trait. For example, plants with yellow pods produced yellow-pod offspring, and plants with green pods produced green-pod offspring. At a time when many people thought traits blended together, Mendel proposed that traits are inherited as separate units, now called genes.

To test which trait was dominant, Mendel performed monohybrid crosses. A monohybrid cross is a cross between two true-breeding organisms that differ in one trait. The offspring from these crosses are monohybrids, or heterozygotes, and they show the dominant trait. When Mendel crossed pea plants true-breeding for yellow pods with plants true-breeding for green pods, the first filial generation, or F1, all had green pods. These results supported the principle of uniformity, which says that heterozygotes for a single-gene trait have the same phenotype.

Mendel then let the F1 plants self-fertilize to produce the F2 generation. In this generation, green-pod plants outnumbered yellow-pod plants by about 3:1. Mendel saw this same pattern in each of the seven pea traits. He explained the ratio with the law of segregation, which states that an organism gives one of its two gene copies to each gamete, or egg or sperm cell. This distribution is random, so a heterozygote such as Gg makes gametes with either the G or g allele.

If two heterozygotes self-fertilize, as in Gg x Gg, their alleles can combine in four ways: GG, Gg, Gg, and gg. Three of these combinations produce green pods, and one produces yellow pods. That gives the expected 3:1 phenotype ratio seen in the F2 generation. Mendel’s results therefore supported his law of segregation.

Mendel’s pea work also showed that dominant traits are not always the most common traits. In peas, green pods are recessive and yellow pods are dominant, yet people often grow and eat green peas because they prefer them. If farmers keep choosing green peas for breeding, they will keep producing green pods. This example shows that a dominant trait can still be uncommon, and even harmful dominant traits may be selected against.

Mendel’s Pea Plant Inheritance Ratios

genetic lingo

Genotype, Phenotype, and Inheritance

Genotype, phenotype, and inheritance help explain how traits and disease risk are passed from parents to offspring. In diploid organisms, including humans, most other animals, and many plants, somatic cells carry a duplicate set of chromosomes. These chromosome pairs are homologous, with similar length, centromere position, and gene locations. Diploid organisms inherit two versions of each gene, one from each parent. These versions are called alleles, and they sit at the same relative locus,...

punnett squares

Punnett Squares for Predicting Traits

Punnett squares help predict which traits offspring may inherit from two parents. They show possible genotypes, which are pairs of alleles, and can also show the chance of a phenotype, or visible trait, when the inheritance pattern is known. These grids work best for traits controlled by a single gene locus and passed on independently during meiosis. Punnett squares were developed in the early 1900s by Reginald Punnett. His work came after Gregor Mendel’s pea plant experiments revealed the...

monohybrid crosses

Gregor Mendel used pea plants to study how traits are passed from parents to offspring. His breeding experiments in the 1850s and 1860s showed that inheritance follows clear patterns. He crossed true-breeding plants that differed in one trait and found that dominant traits can hide recessive traits. Mendel focused on seven pea plant traits, and each trait had two forms controlled by a single gene locus. He noticed that true-breeding plants always produced offspring with the same phenotype, or...

dihybrid crosses

Mendel's Law of Independent Assortment

Mendel’s law of independent assortment explains how two traits can be inherited separately. Gregor Mendel tested this idea with pea plants that differed in two characteristics, such as pea color and pea shape. He used true-breeding parents that were homozygous for both traits but showed different phenotypes. In one example, Mendel crossed round, yellow peas with wrinkled, green peas. The parental generation had RRYY and rryy genotypes. Their first-generation offspring were all dihybrids,...

law of segregation

Mendel’s Pea Cross Ratios

Mendel’s pea plant crosses show how traits can disappear in one generation and return in the next. When he crossed plants, one parental trait sometimes seemed to vanish in the F1 generation and reappear in the F2 generation. Mendel used this pattern to explain why some traits are dominant and others are recessive. He proposed that traits are controlled by alleles, which are different versions of a gene. An organism inherits two copies of each gene, one from each parent. In his model, a...

probability laws

Inheritance Risk with Sum and Product Rules

Inheritance risk can be calculated with the sum rule and the product rule. The sum rule applies to mutually exclusive events, or events that cannot happen at the same time. The product rule applies to independent events, or events that do not affect one another. These rules describe theoretical probability, which is the chance of an event before it happens. Empirical probability is different because it is based on events that have already occurred. These probability rules are useful in...

law of independent assortment

Mendel’s Dihybrid Cross and Trait Ratios

Mendel’s dihybrid cross shows how two traits are inherited at the same time. A dihybrid cross is a cross in which both parents are homozygous for two distinct traits, and the F1 generation is heterozygous for both traits. Mendel used pea plants with round yellow peas and wrinkled green peas as an example. One parent had genotype YYRR, and the other had genotype yyrr. In the F1 generation, every plant showed the dominant traits, so the plants were YyRr and had yellow, round peas. The F2...

test cross

Using Test Crosses to Identify Genotypes

Test crosses are used to identify the genotype of an organism with a dominant trait. A genotype is the pair of alleles inherited for a gene, and alleles are different forms of the same gene. In diploid organisms, including humans, each gene usually has two alleles, one from each parent. An allele is recessive when its effect is hidden by another allele at the same gene location. Pea plants provide a clear example with flower color. White flowers are recessive, because one copy of the purple...

pedigree analysis

Reading Family Traits in Pedigrees

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multiple allele traits

Blood Type and Allele Interactions

Multiple alleles can shape traits through blood type, sickle cell anemia, incomplete dominance, and codominance. Multiple allelism means a gene has three or more allelic forms. Diploid organisms, including humans, usually carry only two alleles for each gene, but many human genes exist in multiple forms in the population. Human blood type is a clear example of multiple allelism. The blood type gene has three alleles: I A , I B , and i. These alleles help determine which blood type a person has...

epistasis

Gene Masking in Rabbit Fur Color

Epistasis describes how one gene can mask or change the effect of another gene. In high school genetics, this helps explain why many traits do not follow a simple single-gene pattern. Instead, alleles at different locations can work together to shape the final phenotype. Mendel studied seven unrelated pea traits, but most traits involve multiple gene interactions. Epistasis often happens when one gene interferes with the expression of another gene. It can also occur when genes are part of the...

polygenic traits

Polygenic Traits in Human Height

Polygenic traits are traits controlled by more than one gene. Human height is a clear example of this kind of inheritance. Because many genes work together, the final trait can vary a lot from person to person. Researchers have found hundreds of loci, or gene locations, that influence height. There are likely many more that have not yet been identified. Many of these genes affect cartilage in the growth plates of the long bones in the arms and legs, either directly or indirectly. Height is...

nature and nurture

Genes and Environment Shape Height

Genes and environment both shape human height and other traits. Genes are the inherited instructions we get from our parents. Environment includes factors such as diet, stress, and social conditions. Many phenotypes, or observable traits, reflect both influences. Some also show up later in life, including cancer and other diseases. Height is a clear example of this interaction. Scientists estimate that 70-90% of height variation comes from genetic differences among people. The remaining 10-30%...

pleiotropy

SOX10 and Multiple Traits in Pleiotropy

Pleiotropy is when one gene affects more than one trait. The SOX10 gene is a clear example because it can influence pigmentation, hearing, and intestinal movement. These traits may seem unrelated, but they can all be linked to the same gene change. In humans, a deleted region in SOX10 can cause Waardenburg Syndrome Type 4, or WS4. WS4 is an autosomal recessive disorder, which means a person usually inherits two altered copies of the gene. Common signs include a white forelock,...

sex-linked disorders

X- and Y-Linked Disorder Patterns

X- and Y-linked disorders come from mutations in genes on the sex chromosomes. These genes, like those on autosomes, are needed for normal body function. When a mutation causes a biological problem, the condition is called sex-linked. Y-linked disorders come from changes in the Y chromosome. They affect only males, because only males carry a Y chromosome. Mutations in this small chromosome can affect male sexual function and secondary sex characteristics. One example is Y-chromosome...

x-linked traits

X-Linked Inheritance in Families

X-linked inheritance explains how traits on the X chromosome are passed through families. In most mammalian species, females have two X sex chromosomes, while males have one X and one Y. A mutation on one X chromosome may be masked in females by a normal allele on the other X. In males, that same mutation is more likely to show because there is no second normal X to balance it. Traits caused by changes on the X chromosome are called X-linked traits. Color blindness is a well-studied example.

x-inactivation

Barr Bodies and X-Chromosome Balance

Barr bodies and X-chromosome balance help explain how female mammalian cells control gene activity from the X chromosome. The human X chromosome carries far more genes than the Y chromosome. Because males usually have one X chromosome and females have two, females would make twice as many of some proteins without a control system. To prevent that imbalance, female mammalian cells inactivate nearly all the genes on one X chromosome during early embryonic development. The inactive X condenses...

non-nuclear inheritance

Maternal DNA in Mitochondria and Chloroplasts

Maternal DNA in mitochondria and chloroplasts explains how some genes are inherited outside the nucleus. Most DNA is in the nucleus, but mitochondria and chloroplasts in the cell cytoplasm also carry their own DNA and can copy it independently of nuclear DNA. Mitochondria are found in both plant and animal cells. They are called the powerhouses of eukaryotic cells because they break down glucose to make energy for cellular activity. Mitochondrial DNA has about 37 genes, and many help with...

chromosomal theory of inheritance

How Genes Map to Chromosomes

Genes map to chromosomes, and this idea explains how Mendel’s inheritance patterns work. Gregor Mendel published his pea plant breeding results in 1866. He showed that physical traits follow predictable patterns. At the time, scientists did not yet know that genes existed. Mendel used the word "factors" for the hereditary units he studied. The details behind Mendel’s laws of segregation and independent assortment were still unknown for many years. In the late 1800s, better microscopes and...

key terms and concepts

Learn how Mendel’s pea plant crosses revealed dominant and recessive traits, the 3:1 F2 ratio, and the laws of uniformity and segregation.

Mendel’s Pea Plant Inheritance Ratios | JoVE K12

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Heredity: Inheritance and Variation of Traits

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SC.912.L.16

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RNA Stability

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MicroRNAs

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LS.10.a

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Nondisjunction

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LS.10.b

Genetic Lingo

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Punnett Squares

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A Punnett square displays the possible genotypes offspring can inherit from two parental genotypes. If a trait&#x2019;s inheritance pattern ...

Overview

In the 1850s and 1860s, Gregor Mendel investigated inheritance by performing monohybrid crosses in pea plants. He crossed two plants that were ...

Dihybrid Crosses

Overview

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Law of Segregation

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Test Cross

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An allele is ...

Pedigree Analysis

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X-linked Traits

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Mendel’s Pea Plant Inheritance Ratios

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