Mental Rotation

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1. Stimulus design.

Present the stimuli for this experiment—letters and numbers, along with their mirror images (Figure 1)—in various rotations.

Figure 1. Sample stimuli for a mental rotation task. The top rows show two characters (R and 4) and a copy of each rotated. The bottom row shows a mirror image of each (on the right side of each pair) and a rotated version of each, as well. The mental rotation task involves identifying rotated versions of familiar characters and distinguishing them from rotated versions of their mirror images.
Use PowerPoint, Keynote, or a similar program to generate the stimuli.
For this experiment, use the uppercase letter ‘R’ and the lowercase letter ‘g,’ along with the numbers ‘4’ and ‘7.’
In PowerPoint, make one copy of each of the four characters. Use the Helvetica Light font for this experiment.
Make a second copy of each character and flip them to produce a mirror image of each.
Make 12 copies of each of the four characters and their mirror images.
Rotate each of the 12 copies by an increasing increment of 15°. The original copy of each is 0°, the next is 15°, then 30°, and so on, until 180°. Reference Figure 2 to see the full set of stimuli used for this experiment.

Figure 2. A complete set of stimuli for the mental rotation task. Four characters (3, R, 4, and g), each paired with their mirror images and rotated in 15° increments between 0 and 180.
From the 13 rotated copies of each stimulus and its mirror image, generate the stimuli for each individual trial. A trial consists of one of the four non-mirror images printed at the top of a page. The bottom of the page includes that letter or number and its mirror image at one of the 12 rotations (Figures 3 and 4).
Make a page for each trial of the experiment. Each of the four numbers/letters have 13 trial pages, so make sure there are 52 pages total and print them out.
Number the backs of the pages 1-52. The number on each page is the number tag. The number a page is labelled with does not matter. However, when numbering the pages, also make a key, a table that reports the nature of the trial on each page and the correct answer (left or right), so responses can be associated with individual trials later. Create the key to look something like an Excel spreadsheet labelled “Mental Rotation Key” (Table 1).

Number Tag	Character	Angle	Correct Answer
1	3	60	RIGHT
2	g	75	RIGHT
3	g	30	RIGHT
4	g	60	LEFT
5	g	165	RIGHT
6	4	105	LEFT
7	3	15	LEFT
8	3	165	LEFT
9	4	180	LEFT
10	R	15	RIGHT
11	g	180	RIGHT
12	g	45	RIGHT
13	g	105	RIGHT
14	3	45	RIGHT
15	4	15	LEFT
16	R	60	LEFT
17	R	45	LEFT
18	R	150	LEFT
19	g	0	RIGHT
20	R	30	LEFT
21	3	120	LEFT
22	4	90	LEFT
23	R	75	LEFT
24	4	135	RIGHT
25	3	180	LEFT
26	4	45	LEFT
27	R	90	RIGHT
28	4	0	LEFT
29	4	120	LEFT
30	3	135	RIGHT
31	R	135	LEFT
32	3	30	LEFT
33	4	75	LEFT
34	3	105	LEFT
35	3	150	LEFT
36	R	105	RIGHT
37	4	60	RIGHT
38	4	30	LEFT
39	R	120	RIGHT
40	R	180	RIGHT
41	g	135	RIGHT
42	3	0	LEFT
43	3	90	LEFT
44	4	150	RIGHT
45	4	165	LEFT
46	3	75	RIGHT
47	R	165	LEFT
48	g	90	RIGHT
49	g	150	RIGHT
50	g	15	LEFT
51	R	0	RIGHT
52	g	120	RIGHT

Table 1. An example of a key that reports the nature of the trial on each page and the correct answer (left or right).

Optical character recognition test, distinguishing "R" from mirrored symbols in a simple diagram.
Figure 3. A sample test page for one trial of the mental rotation experiment. The participant must report whether the character on the left or the right (below the line) is the rotated ‘R’ (as opposed to its mirror image rotation).

Sample test page identifying number 4 using symbols in a learning assessment diagram.
Figure 4. A sample test page for one trial of the mental rotation experiment. The participant must report whether the character on the left or the right (below the line) is the rotated ‘4’ (as opposed to its mirror image rotation).

In order to associate results with the content of each trial, a place to record the results is needed, so make another spreadsheet with a column for the trial number, a column for the number tag of that trial, a column for the response given (right or left), and a column for the time it takes the participant to produce a response. Print out this response sheet.
In addition, make a demo page to use in order to explain the instructions. Have it show an example of one of the characters, its mirror image, and some examples of the character at one of the rotations. Label it clearly (Figure 5).

Character mirror rotation diagram with symbols; visual symmetry study; 105° rotation shown.
Figure 5. An instruction sheet. This sheet presents one of the characters, its mirror image, and a rotation of each in order to facilitate explanation of the procedure to the participant.

In addition to printed versions of the trial and demo pages, acquire a stopwatch for the experiment, and it is also useful to have an assistant to help with timing and recording responses.

2. Procedure.

Use the demo page to explain the instructions to the participant: “This experiment will investigate your ability to rotate objects using visual imagery. On each trial, you will be asked to decide which one of two images is a rotated version of a familiar number or letter. The alternative will be a mirror image rotation of the same number or letter. Here is one example: the number 3. And here is its mirror image. In a trial, you will see the original 3, along with something like the two examples on the bottom of the page, the rotated 3 and a rotation of its mirror image. You will say “left” or “right” to indicate which one you think is the original. You should respond as quickly as possible without sacrificing accuracy. In other words, respond as soon as you are sure of the answer, but not sooner.”
Shuffle the 52 test pages to randomize the order. After shuffling, enter the number tags of the trials in the order they will be presented in on the response sheet.
Start the experiment. Place the stack of pages face-down between the experimenter and the participant, the number tags facing up.
Have the assistant hold the stopwatch.
On each trial, have the assistant say, “Go,” when they start the timer. At this signal, flip over the page for that trial. Have the participant study the page and say “right” or “left” to indicate which character is the answer for that trial.
When the participant reports a response, have the assistant stop the timer. Then, record the response time and the answer given on the response sheet.
Repeat this procedure for all 52 trials.

3. Analysis.

When the experiment is done, analyze the data.
Enter the handwritten number tags, responses, and response times into a digital copy of the response sheet, and save it with a new name, for example, “Participant 1 MR responses” (Table 2).

Trial #	Number Tag	Response Given	Response Time	Number Tag2	Character	Angle	Correct Answer	Answer Correct?
4	1	RIGHT	4876	1	3	60	RIGHT	1
38	2	RIGHT	6758	2	g	75	RIGHT	1
40	3	RIGHT	3579	3	g	30	RIGHT	1
26	4	LEFT	8752	4	g	60	LEFT	1
10	5	RIGHT	6494	5	g	165	RIGHT	1
49	6	LEFT	6587	6	4	105	LEFT	1
16	7	LEFT	3434	7	3	15	LEFT	1
45	8	LEFT	9172	8	3	165	LEFT	1
35	9	LEFT	1856	9	4	180	LEFT	1
17	10	RIGHT	6818	10	R	15	RIGHT	1
12	11	RIGHT	4797	11	g	180	RIGHT	1
5	12	RIGHT	5378	12	g	45	RIGHT	1
21	13	RIGHT	3301	13	g	105	RIGHT	1
25	14	RIGHT	1393	14	3	45	RIGHT	1
33	15	LEFT	3937	15	4	15	LEFT	1
42	16	LEFT	5827	16	R	60	LEFT	1
31	17	LEFT	6004	17	R	45	LEFT	1
9	18	LEFT	6174	18	R	150	LEFT	1
46	19	RIGHT	6619	19	g	0	RIGHT	1
3	20	LEFT	2276	20	R	30	LEFT	1
18	21	LEFT	4176	21	3	120	LEFT	1
28	22	LEFT	7819	22	4	90	LEFT	1
24	23	LEFT	7368	23	R	75	LEFT	1
6	24	RIGHT	4984	24	4	135	RIGHT	1
47	25	LEFT	4495	25	3	180	LEFT	1
7	26	LEFT	5476	26	4	45	LEFT	1
50	27	RIGHT	7919	27	R	90	RIGHT	1
27	28	LEFT	7182	28	4	0	LEFT	1
48	29	LEFT	5793	29	4	120	LEFT	1
13	30	RIGHT	8986	30	3	135	RIGHT	1
36	31	LEFT	9457	31	R	135	LEFT	1
11	32	LEFT	7903	32	3	30	LEFT	1
29	33	LEFT	9703	33	4	75	LEFT	1
51	34	LEFT	9565	34	3	105	LEFT	1
1	35	LEFT	9341	35	3	150	LEFT	1
8	36	RIGHT	2849	36	R	105	RIGHT	1
52	37	RIGHT	2355	37	4	60	RIGHT	1
2	38	LEFT	2094	38	4	30	LEFT	1
32	39	RIGHT	7338	39	R	120	RIGHT	1
43	40	RIGHT	5431	40	R	180	RIGHT	1
37	41	RIGHT	2734	41	g	135	RIGHT	1
19	42	LEFT	5978	42	3	0	LEFT	1
14	43	LEFT	3305	43	3	90	LEFT	1
22	44	RIGHT	5273	44	4	150	RIGHT	1
41	45	LEFT	4472	45	4	165	LEFT	1
23	46	RIGHT	2353	46	3	75	RIGHT	1
34	47	LEFT	8211	47	R	165	LEFT	1
20	48	RIGHT	2049	48	g	90	RIGHT	1
44	49	RIGHT	9719	49	g	150	RIGHT	1
39	50	LEFT	9562	50	g	15	LEFT	1
15	51	RIGHT	1282	51	R	0	RIGHT	1
30	52	RIGHT	3548	52	g	120	RIGHT	1

Table 2. An example of a completed response sheet.

Open the response key and sort by number tag. Cut and paste the contents of the response key into the sheet with the participant responses, so now there are columns reporting both the responses and response times of the participant, and the details of each trial.
Add one more column to the end of the sheet, labelled “Response Correct?” Compare the response given with the correct response in each row, and enter a 1 in the response correct row if the answer given was correct or a 0 if it was not.
Summarize the results. Average the “Response Correct?” column to see the overall proportion of trials with correct responses. This should be very high or perfect for most participants. Average the response time column to get a sense of the overall response times. That column can also be averaged while filtering by the letter on the trial and/or the orientation of the letter.

Overview

Procedure

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1. Stimulus design.

Present the stimuli for this experiment—letters and numbers, along with their mirror images (Figure 1)—in various rotations.

Figure 1. Sample stimuli for a mental rotation task. The top rows show two characters (R and 4) and a copy of each rotated. The bottom row shows a mirror image of each (on the right side of each pair) and a rotated version of each, as well. The mental rotation task involves identifying rotated versions of familiar characters and distinguishing them from rotated versions of their mirror images.
Use PowerPoint, Keynote, or a similar program to generate the stimuli.
For this experiment, use the uppercase letter ‘R’ and the lowercase letter ‘g,’ along with the numbers ‘4’ and ‘7.’
In PowerPoint, make one copy of each of the four characters. Use the Helvetica Light font for this experiment.
Make a second copy of each character and flip them to produce a mirror image of each.
Make 12 copies of each of the four characters and their mirror images.
Rotate each of the 12 copies by an increasing increment of 15°. The original copy of each is 0°, the next is 15°, then 30°, and so on, until 180°. Reference Figure 2 to see the full set of stimuli used for this experiment.

Figure 2. A complete set of stimuli for the mental rotation task. Four characters (3, R, 4, and g), each paired with their mirror images and rotated in 15° increments between 0 and 180.
From the 13 rotated copies of each stimulus and its mirror image, generate the stimuli for each individual trial. A trial consists of one of the four non-mirror images printed at the top of a page. The bottom of the page includes that letter or number and its mirror image at one of the 12 rotations (Figures 3 and 4).
Make a page for each trial of the experiment. Each of the four numbers/letters have 13 trial pages, so make sure there are 52 pages total and print them out.
Number the backs of the pages 1-52. The number on each page is the number tag. The number a page is labelled with does not matter. However, when numbering the pages, also make a key, a table that reports the nature of the trial on each page and the correct answer (left or right), so responses can be associated with individual trials later. Create the key to look something like an Excel spreadsheet labelled “Mental Rotation Key” (Table 1).

Number Tag	Character	Angle	Correct Answer
1	3	60	RIGHT
2	g	75	RIGHT
3	g	30	RIGHT
4	g	60	LEFT
5	g	165	RIGHT
6	4	105	LEFT
7	3	15	LEFT
8	3	165	LEFT
9	4	180	LEFT
10	R	15	RIGHT
11	g	180	RIGHT
12	g	45	RIGHT
13	g	105	RIGHT
14	3	45	RIGHT
15	4	15	LEFT
16	R	60	LEFT
17	R	45	LEFT
18	R	150	LEFT
19	g	0	RIGHT
20	R	30	LEFT
21	3	120	LEFT
22	4	90	LEFT
23	R	75	LEFT
24	4	135	RIGHT
25	3	180	LEFT
26	4	45	LEFT
27	R	90	RIGHT
28	4	0	LEFT
29	4	120	LEFT
30	3	135	RIGHT
31	R	135	LEFT
32	3	30	LEFT
33	4	75	LEFT
34	3	105	LEFT
35	3	150	LEFT
36	R	105	RIGHT
37	4	60	RIGHT
38	4	30	LEFT
39	R	120	RIGHT
40	R	180	RIGHT
41	g	135	RIGHT
42	3	0	LEFT
43	3	90	LEFT
44	4	150	RIGHT
45	4	165	LEFT
46	3	75	RIGHT
47	R	165	LEFT
48	g	90	RIGHT
49	g	150	RIGHT
50	g	15	LEFT
51	R	0	RIGHT
52	g	120	RIGHT

Table 1. An example of a key that reports the nature of the trial on each page and the correct answer (left or right).

Optical character recognition test, distinguishing "R" from mirrored symbols in a simple diagram.
Figure 3. A sample test page for one trial of the mental rotation experiment. The participant must report whether the character on the left or the right (below the line) is the rotated ‘R’ (as opposed to its mirror image rotation).

Sample test page identifying number 4 using symbols in a learning assessment diagram.
Figure 4. A sample test page for one trial of the mental rotation experiment. The participant must report whether the character on the left or the right (below the line) is the rotated ‘4’ (as opposed to its mirror image rotation).

In order to associate results with the content of each trial, a place to record the results is needed, so make another spreadsheet with a column for the trial number, a column for the number tag of that trial, a column for the response given (right or left), and a column for the time it takes the participant to produce a response. Print out this response sheet.
In addition, make a demo page to use in order to explain the instructions. Have it show an example of one of the characters, its mirror image, and some examples of the character at one of the rotations. Label it clearly (Figure 5).

Character mirror rotation diagram with symbols; visual symmetry study; 105° rotation shown.
Figure 5. An instruction sheet. This sheet presents one of the characters, its mirror image, and a rotation of each in order to facilitate explanation of the procedure to the participant.

In addition to printed versions of the trial and demo pages, acquire a stopwatch for the experiment, and it is also useful to have an assistant to help with timing and recording responses.

2. Procedure.

Use the demo page to explain the instructions to the participant: “This experiment will investigate your ability to rotate objects using visual imagery. On each trial, you will be asked to decide which one of two images is a rotated version of a familiar number or letter. The alternative will be a mirror image rotation of the same number or letter. Here is one example: the number 3. And here is its mirror image. In a trial, you will see the original 3, along with something like the two examples on the bottom of the page, the rotated 3 and a rotation of its mirror image. You will say “left” or “right” to indicate which one you think is the original. You should respond as quickly as possible without sacrificing accuracy. In other words, respond as soon as you are sure of the answer, but not sooner.”
Shuffle the 52 test pages to randomize the order. After shuffling, enter the number tags of the trials in the order they will be presented in on the response sheet.
Start the experiment. Place the stack of pages face-down between the experimenter and the participant, the number tags facing up.
Have the assistant hold the stopwatch.
On each trial, have the assistant say, “Go,” when they start the timer. At this signal, flip over the page for that trial. Have the participant study the page and say “right” or “left” to indicate which character is the answer for that trial.
When the participant reports a response, have the assistant stop the timer. Then, record the response time and the answer given on the response sheet.
Repeat this procedure for all 52 trials.

3. Analysis.

When the experiment is done, analyze the data.
Enter the handwritten number tags, responses, and response times into a digital copy of the response sheet, and save it with a new name, for example, “Participant 1 MR responses” (Table 2).

Trial #	Number Tag	Response Given	Response Time	Number Tag2	Character	Angle	Correct Answer	Answer Correct?
4	1	RIGHT	4876	1	3	60	RIGHT	1
38	2	RIGHT	6758	2	g	75	RIGHT	1
40	3	RIGHT	3579	3	g	30	RIGHT	1
26	4	LEFT	8752	4	g	60	LEFT	1
10	5	RIGHT	6494	5	g	165	RIGHT	1
49	6	LEFT	6587	6	4	105	LEFT	1
16	7	LEFT	3434	7	3	15	LEFT	1
45	8	LEFT	9172	8	3	165	LEFT	1
35	9	LEFT	1856	9	4	180	LEFT	1
17	10	RIGHT	6818	10	R	15	RIGHT	1
12	11	RIGHT	4797	11	g	180	RIGHT	1
5	12	RIGHT	5378	12	g	45	RIGHT	1
21	13	RIGHT	3301	13	g	105	RIGHT	1
25	14	RIGHT	1393	14	3	45	RIGHT	1
33	15	LEFT	3937	15	4	15	LEFT	1
42	16	LEFT	5827	16	R	60	LEFT	1
31	17	LEFT	6004	17	R	45	LEFT	1
9	18	LEFT	6174	18	R	150	LEFT	1
46	19	RIGHT	6619	19	g	0	RIGHT	1
3	20	LEFT	2276	20	R	30	LEFT	1
18	21	LEFT	4176	21	3	120	LEFT	1
28	22	LEFT	7819	22	4	90	LEFT	1
24	23	LEFT	7368	23	R	75	LEFT	1
6	24	RIGHT	4984	24	4	135	RIGHT	1
47	25	LEFT	4495	25	3	180	LEFT	1
7	26	LEFT	5476	26	4	45	LEFT	1
50	27	RIGHT	7919	27	R	90	RIGHT	1
27	28	LEFT	7182	28	4	0	LEFT	1
48	29	LEFT	5793	29	4	120	LEFT	1
13	30	RIGHT	8986	30	3	135	RIGHT	1
36	31	LEFT	9457	31	R	135	LEFT	1
11	32	LEFT	7903	32	3	30	LEFT	1
29	33	LEFT	9703	33	4	75	LEFT	1
51	34	LEFT	9565	34	3	105	LEFT	1
1	35	LEFT	9341	35	3	150	LEFT	1
8	36	RIGHT	2849	36	R	105	RIGHT	1
52	37	RIGHT	2355	37	4	60	RIGHT	1
2	38	LEFT	2094	38	4	30	LEFT	1
32	39	RIGHT	7338	39	R	120	RIGHT	1
43	40	RIGHT	5431	40	R	180	RIGHT	1
37	41	RIGHT	2734	41	g	135	RIGHT	1
19	42	LEFT	5978	42	3	0	LEFT	1
14	43	LEFT	3305	43	3	90	LEFT	1
22	44	RIGHT	5273	44	4	150	RIGHT	1
41	45	LEFT	4472	45	4	165	LEFT	1
23	46	RIGHT	2353	46	3	75	RIGHT	1
34	47	LEFT	8211	47	R	165	LEFT	1
20	48	RIGHT	2049	48	g	90	RIGHT	1
44	49	RIGHT	9719	49	g	150	RIGHT	1
39	50	LEFT	9562	50	g	15	LEFT	1
15	51	RIGHT	1282	51	R	0	RIGHT	1
30	52	RIGHT	3548	52	g	120	RIGHT	1

Table 2. An example of a completed response sheet.

Open the response key and sort by number tag. Cut and paste the contents of the response key into the sheet with the participant responses, so now there are columns reporting both the responses and response times of the participant, and the details of each trial.
Add one more column to the end of the sheet, labelled “Response Correct?” Compare the response given with the correct response in each row, and enter a 1 in the response correct row if the answer given was correct or a 0 if it was not.
Summarize the results. Average the “Response Correct?” column to see the overall proportion of trials with correct responses. This should be very high or perfect for most participants. Average the response time column to get a sense of the overall response times. That column can also be averaged while filtering by the letter on the trial and/or the orientation of the letter.

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Transcript

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$$\rightleftharpoonup{xx}$$ $$\longleftharp{xx}$$, $$\longrightharp{xx}$$,

Individuals must rely on visual mental imagery?the ability to conjure images in one?s mind?s eye?to accurately perceive the world and guide actions.

For example, mental imagery is used to visualize a route when planning directions to particular location, or what a house might look like if it were remodeled.

Experimental psychologists can measure a person?s visual mental imagery through the use of a mental rotation paradigm, which involves identifying rotated versions of familiar characters and distinguishing them from rotated versions of their mirror images.

Using the mental rotation procedure, this video will demonstrate how to design stimuli and conduct an experiment, as well as how to analyze and interpret results investigating visual mental imagery.

In this experiment, participants are presented with stimuli and asked to distinguish whether subsequent stimuli are rotations of the original item or of its mirror image.

In this case, the task stimuli consist of letters, such as R and g, as well as numbers, like 4 and 7, all printed in Helvetica Light font.

Two versions of the letters and numbers are produced: the original and a flipped, mirror image. The characters are then manipulated, such that each one is rotated by an increasing increment of 15?, starting at 0? and ending at 180?.

During each trial, participants are presented with one of the four manipulated characters and then asked to decide from two possible choices which one is the rotated version of the original item as quickly and accurately as possible.

Thus, the dependent variable is response time?how long it takes for the participant to make a response.

It is hypothesized that response times will be faster for characters that have little rotation, compared to those that are rotated the most. In other words, the response times are longer the more a character is rotated from its canonical orientation.

To begin the experiment, gather stimuli sheets that have been created for each individual trial. For each trial, note that one of the four non-mirror images is printed at the top, and the two choices are located on the bottom of the page.

Number the back of each page from 1?52, which is called the ?number tag.? To randomize the order, shuffle the test pages.

To more easily associate the results with the content of each trial, create a response sheet that includes the trial number, number tag in the order of presentation, response given, and response time.

As the last preparation step, gather a stopwatch and an assistant.

When the participant arrives, explain the instructions to them using a demo page. Note that one of the characters, its mirror image, and a couple of examples of the character at one of the rotations is shown.

Next, place the test pages facedown between the experimenter and the participant.

During each trial, once the assistant starts the timer and says, ?Go,? flip over a page for the participant.

When the participant reports a response, stop the timer. Then, record the response time and the answer on the response sheet. Repeat this procedure for all 52 trials.

Once the experiment is complete, create a digital copy of the response sheet, including the number tags in numerical order, responses given, response times, and correct answers.

Mark whether the responses given were correct by entering a 1 in the ?Answer Correct?? column or a 0 if incorrect.

For the correct trials, plot the average response times for each character shown as a function of rotation. Note that the response times increase proportionally with the degree of rotation. These results suggest that the brain simulates the physical transformations.

Now that you are familiar with designing a mental rotation experiment, you can apply this approach to answer specific questions about visual mental imagery.

Practically speaking, people who are especially good at visual thinking about physical spaces can be identified through the mental rotation task. Certain individuals are exceptionally good at using mental imagery to guide their actions?like architects and mechanical engineers.

In addition, researchers use functional magnetic resonance imaging to investigate brain regions involved in mental rotation.

When people mentally rotate objects without looking at them, there is an enormous amount of brain activity in the visual cortex in particular, and in regions such as the parietal lobe?brain areas generally thought to be involved in seeing. In other words, the brain systems used to actually see visual stimuli are also used to imagine visual stimuli.

Finally, researchers examine mental rotation in virtual reality to study how mental imagery is involved in navigating through different spatial environments and obstacles.

You?ve just watched JoVE?s introduction to conducting a mental rotation experiment. Now you should have a good understanding of how to design and conduct the experiment, and finally how to analyze and interpret the results.

Thanks for watching!?

Learning Objectives

Questions that this video will help you answer

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