Neurons: The Axon

The axon is a long, thin extended portion of the neuron that carries electrical impulses from the cell body toward effector cells. It contains axoplasm, cytoplasm surrounded by the axolemma plasma membrane. The axon's primary function is to propagate action potentials along its length, enabling communication between neurons and target cells.

Action potentials are initiated at the trigger zone, the junction between the axon hillock and the initial segment. The axon hillock is a cone-shaped region where the axon emerges from the cell body. From this trigger zone, action potentials advance along the entire length of the axon to transmit neural signals.

Synaptic end bulbs are bulb-shaped structures at the tips of axon terminals. They contain vesicles filled with neurotransmitters, chemical messengers that communicate signals to effector cells. These structures are essential for transmitting information across synapses to target neurons or muscle cells.

The distal end of the axon branches into several slender processes called axon terminals or telodendria. These terminal branches create side branches or collaterals, allowing one neuron to communicate with multiple other cells simultaneously. Each branch ends at synaptic terminals where communication occurs.

Anterograde transport moves organelles and synaptic vesicles from the cell body toward axon terminals, supplying materials for neurotransmission. Retrograde transport carries membrane vesicles and cellular materials back toward the cell body for degradation or recycling. Both processes use protein motors to move materials along microtubules.

Slow axonal transport moves materials from the cell body toward axon terminals at 1-5 mm per day, providing new axoplasm for developing or regenerating axons. Fast axonal transport moves materials at 200-400 mm per day in both directions using protein motors along microtubules, enabling rapid delivery of organelles and vesicles.

Axoplasm contains neurofibrils, neurotubules, small vesicles, lysosomes, mitochondria, and various enzymes. These components are enclosed within the axolemma, the plasma membrane of the axon. Together, they support axonal function, including energy production, protein synthesis, and transport of materials throughout the axon.