Name: Label-Free Non-Linear Optics for the Study of Tubulin-Dependent Defects in Central Myelin (Video) | JoVE Journal
Uploaded: 2023-03-24T12:20:00.000+00:00
Duration: 8 min 7 s
Description: Learn second harmonic generation microscopy for detecting microtubule-loaded oligodendrocytes in tubulinopathy models. This label-free method advances understanding of central myelin pathology.

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5 minutes

This work was supported by Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnolog&#237;a (CONACYT) through the following grants: infraestructura 226450 to VP-CIO, infraestructura 255277 to V.P., and FORDECYT-PRONACES/194171/2020 to V.H. We acknowledge the support of Juvenal Hern&#225;ndez Guevara at CIO in the video-making.

All procedures described were done in compliance with the laws and codes approved in the seventh title of the Regulation of the General Health Law Regarding Health Research of the Mexican Government (NOM-062-ZOO-1999) and in accordance with the recommendations of the National Institutes of Health Guide for the Care and Use of Experimental Animals and were approved by the institutional committee of bioethics in research of the Universidad de Guanajuato and Benem&#233;rita Universidad Aut&#243;noma de Puebla.
1. Microscope settings
<ol>
	<li>Switch on the microscopy system.</li>
	<li>Turn on the pulsed laser to guarantee that it will be ready to lase at an optimal and steady power level after the sample extraction and preparation.</li>
	<li>Tune the laser to 810 nm. To study tissular microtubules, 10%-20% of the available laser power is used, which, in the described system, corresponds to 13-26 mW measured at the back focal plane of the objective.</li>
	<li>Make sure the microscope is K&#246;hler-aligned (Supplementary File 1), with the objective that will be used for the SHG imaging. 
	NOTE: This is important since, in the commercial setup used in this work, the detection is performed in transmission mode and through the condenser.</li>
	<li>Remove unwanted filters from the optical detection path (Figure 1A).</li>
	<li>Make sure the condenser diaphragm is fully opened to ensure that no light is unnecessarily stopped at this level.</li>
	<li>Prepare a 25x/0.8 numerical aperture (NA) oil-immersion objective with a small drop of immersion oil in the lens. 
	&#8203;NOTE: This objective was used to best match the condenser NA, which was 0.55 (ideally, NAcond&#8805; NAobj).</li>
</ol>
2. Microscope preliminary controls
NOTE: Perform the preliminary microscope controls once, unless the setup is modified.
<ol>
	<li>Image dry corn starch sandwiched between glass slides with SHG parameters to generate SHG images that reveal the laser polarization direction. Follow the steps reported in Supplementary File 2, except for the laser power, which is less than 5% for corn starch.</li>
	<li>Take one image of sparse corn starch grains, and mark the orientation of the SHG lobules in the x-y plane. This orientation corresponds to the laser orientation (Figure 2A).</li>
	<li>As a control, take another image of the same sample, inserting into the optical path a half-wave plate (position shown in Figure 1A) to alter the oscillation direction of the laser. The resulting image displays rotated SHG signal lobules (Figure 2B, C).</li>
	<li>If using a different type of bandpass filter for the SHG, make sure it has optimal transmission properties by comparing the images (Figure 2D, E) and the signal intensities pixel by pixel along a line-scan (Figure 2F).</li>
</ol>
3. Tissue extraction
NOTE: Always use clean tools to perform the surgical procedures.
<ol>
	<li>Use 6-12 month old taiep rats and age-matched Sprague-Dawley&#160;controls (WT).</li>
	<li>Anesthetize the animals with an i.p. injection of a mixture of ketamine-xylazine (0.125 mg/Kg and 5 mg/Kg) diluted in a 0.9% sterile NaCl solution.
	<ol>
		<li>Check the pain reflexes, and proceed only if they are absent.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Sacrifice the animal via decapitation.</li>
	<li>Once the head is isolated, open the bones of the cranial vault carefully along the midline, starting from the most caudal point at the top toward the nose, from the orbital cavities toward the midline, and then from the most caudal point to below the brain and cerebellum. 
	NOTE: Bone cutters and Rongeurs allow for proper removal of the head bones without damaging the brain structures.</li>
	<li>Release the brain and cerebellum from the bone. The two hemispheres could be separated. If the hemispheres are divided, use one half for SHG imaging, and fix the other half in 3.7% paraformaldehyde in phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) for 20 min inside a chemical hood for subsequent sectioning and staining.</li>
</ol>
4. Vibratome sectioning
<ol>
	<li>Prepare a vibratome buffer tray filled with warm (37 &#176;C) Hank&#39;s Balanced Salt Solution (HBSS).</li>
	<li>Fix the brain to the specimen plate using cyanoacrylate glue via a piece of masking tape. The most caudal portion/region contacts the glue so that the usable coronal sections from the opposite, rostral portion can be cut.
	<ol>
		<li>Allow ~10 s for the glue to polymerize to obtain effective attachment of the sample. 
		NOTE: The best results are obtained when the brain is oriented so that the blade cuts &#34;from top to bottom&#34; rather than &#34;from side to side&#34; (Figure 1B).</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Transfer the specimen plate onto its magnetic support inside the buffer tray.</li>
	<li>Start cutting 300-500 &#181;m sections until the slices produced encompass the entire surface of the brain.</li>
	<li>At this point, reduce the thickness of the section to 160 &#181;m.</li>
	<li>Once a complete 160 &#181;m section is cut at the level of the corpus callosum, recover it with a modified glass Pasteur pipette with a large, flamed orifice (Figure 1C).</li>
	<li>Transfer it to a clean Petri dish with new warm HBSS or directly onto the glass support for microscopy (coverslip or glass-bottom dish). 
	&#8203;NOTE: For the described experimental conditions, adding a coverslip above the sample is detrimental to the imaging.</li>
</ol>
5. Transfer to the microscope
<ol>
	<li>If the microscope is in a different room, prepare an insulated box with warmed gel packs to transfer the tissue sections while maintaining the temperature. The box also serves to keep the sections warm until they are imaged.</li>
	<li>Put the sample under the microscope, and make sure it is positioned properly under the objective by direct observation through the oculars with transmitted light. 
	NOTE: The goal is to align the predicted emitting structures with the oscillation direction of the laser to maximize the emitted (and, therefore, detected) SHG signal.</li>
	<li>Remove the excess HBSS so that a thin liquid film covers the entire sample. Visually check the liquid film every few minutes to avoid excessive evaporation and drying of the sample. 
	NOTE: In the conditions described, a section is used for no more than 20 min. Drying of the sample causes drastic artifactual effects (Supplementary Figure 1A). Rather than adding more HBSS, periodic soaking of the section in warm, fresh medium is recommended if longer imaging times are needed. The use of perfusion chambers and glue or low-melting agarose to immobilize the tissue is also recommended when longer experiments are to be done.</li>
	<li>Prepare the microscope stage for non-descanned imaging, which might include closing all the doors of the dark incubation chamber or covering the incubation chamber with a black nylon polyurethane-coated fabric.</li>
</ol>
6. Imaging
<ol>
	<li>Select the &#34;non-descanned&#34; imaging mode along the transmission path. This way, the capture of the weak SH signal of tubulin will be optimized.</li>
	<li>Select the LCI Plan-Neofluar 25x/0.8 NA objective.</li>
	<li>Set a laser power between 13 mW and 26 mW, with a pixel dwell time of 12.6 &#181;s. Take images no bigger than 512 pixels x 512 pixels, with speed 5 and averaging 2, for an average acquisition time of about 15 s. 
	NOTE: Using higher laser powers and/or longer dwell times may damage the sample (Supplementary Figure 1B).</li>
	<li>Take images first using a 485 nm short-pass filter (SP485), and, in a second step, add a sharp 405 nm bandpass filter (BP405; Figure 3). Follow the steps reported in Supplementary File 2. 
	NOTE: Pseudo-brightfield images can be taken through the same detector using the residual laser light of a visible line (405 nm or 488 nm lasers work best).</li>
</ol>
7. Processing of the cerebellum
<ol>
	<li>First, cut the cerebellum with a scalpel into two hemispheres, and then glue them to the vibratome support by the middle portion (the flat part obtained after cutting).</li>
	<li>Section and image the cerebellum in the same way as was described for the brain (160 &#181;m sections, same vibratome settings, same blade, same microscope settings, etc.). 
	NOTE: Due to the anatomy of the cerebellum, its orientation at the moment of sectioning is not critical; in most of the slices generated away from the surface, there will be folia sectioned well into the white matter.</li>
</ol>

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<li>Campagnola, P. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Three-dimensional+high-resolution+second-harmonic+generation+imaging+of+endogenous+structural+proteins+in+biological+tissues%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Biophysical+Journal%22%5BJournal%5D)">Three-dimensional high-resolution second-harmonic generation imaging of endogenous structural proteins in biological tissues.</a> Biophysical Journal. 82 (1), 493-508 (2002).</li>
<li>Yu, C. -H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Measuring+microtubule+polarity+in+spindles+with+second-harmonic+generation%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Biophysical+Journal%22%5BJournal%5D)">Measuring microtubule polarity in spindles with second-harmonic generation.</a> Biophysical Journal. 106 (8), 1578-1587 (2014).</li>
<li>Bancelin, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Probing+microtubules+polarity+in+mitotic+spindles+in+situ+using+Interferometric+Second+Harmonic+Generation+Microscopy%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Scientific+Reports%22%5BJournal%5D)">Probing microtubules polarity in mitotic spindles in situ using Interferometric Second Harmonic Generation Microscopy.</a> Scientific Reports. 7, 6758(2017).</li>
<li>Dombeck, D. A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Uniform+polarity+microtubule+assemblies+imaged+in+native+brain+tissue+by+second-harmonic+generation+microscopy%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences+of+the+United+States+of+America%22%5BJournal%5D)">Uniform polarity microtubule assemblies imaged in native brain tissue by second-harmonic generation microscopy.</a> Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 100 (12), 7081-7086 (2003).</li>
<li>Psilodimitrakopoulos, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Estimation+of+the+effective+orientation+of+the+SHG+source+in+primary+cortical+neurons%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Optics+Express%22%5BJournal%5D)">Estimation of the effective orientation of the SHG source in primary cortical neurons.</a> Optics Express. 17 (16), 14418(2009).</li>
<li>Sharoukhov, D., Bucinca-Cupallari, F., Lim, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Microtubule+imaging+reveals+cytoskeletal+deficit+predisposing+the+retinal+ganglion+cell+axons+to+atrophy+in+DBA%2F2J%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Investigative+Opthalmology+%26+Visual+Science%22%5BJournal%5D)">Microtubule imaging reveals cytoskeletal deficit predisposing the retinal ganglion cell axons to atrophy in DBA/2J.</a> Investigative Opthalmology & Visual Science. 59 (13), 5292(2018).</li>
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<li>Duncan, I. D., Lunn, K. F., Holmgren, B., Urba-Holmgren, R., Brignolo-Holmes, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((The+taiep+rat%3A+A+myelin+mutant+with+an+associated+oligodendrocyte+microtubular+defect%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Journal+of+Neurocytology%22%5BJournal%5D)">The taiep rat: A myelin mutant with an associated oligodendrocyte microtubular defect.</a> Journal of Neurocytology. 21 (12), 870-884 (1992).</li>
<li>Duncan, I. D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((A+mutation+in+the+Tubb4a+gene+leads+to+microtubule+accumulation+with+hypomyelination+and+demyelination%3A+Tubb4a+Mutation%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Annals+of+Neurology%22%5BJournal%5D)">A mutation in the Tubb4a gene leads to microtubule accumulation with hypomyelination and demyelination: Tubb4a Mutation.</a> Annals of Neurology. 81 (5), 690-702 (2017).</li>
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</ol>

The authors have no competing financial interests.

SHG microscopy is part of a group of non-linear optics techniques, which include two-photon excitation microscopy, third harmonic generation microscopy, and coherent anti-Stokes Raman scattering microscopy, that have contributed to expanding the range of applications of conventional optical microscopy to the life sciences20.
Specifically, the major strength and weakness of SHG microscopy relate to the same condition: the signal generator is non-centrosymmetric<sup class...

The optical imaging of cytoskeletal structures in tissues and organ preparations is not an easy task. Cytoskeletal filaments are ubiquitous, so if generic staining is performed, for example, against alpha-tubulin or beta-actin or potentially keratin in an epithelial sample, the signal will likely be distributed rather homogeneously all over the sample. To restrict the staining to a more meaningful subset of cellular components, one can either use transgenic mice with targeted expression1 or plan to use isoform-specific antibodies. While very few of the latter are on the market (and very few exist at all2,3,4), a transgenic animal model might be available. However, it needs to be acquired by the lab and properly housed, with all the expenses involved in the process. Certain antibodies or chemicals, for example, fluorophore-conjugated drugs like phalloidin or paclitaxel, may be partially or fully incompatible with use in living cells or tissues, thus limiting their applicability to only studies of fixed samples.
In the case of tubulin, an additional aspect has to be taken into consideration, which is the sensitivity of the polymer to fixation. Conventional chemical fixation with formaldehyde is known for not being adequate for optimally preserving the integrity of microtubules5. Additionally, a recent report confirms that formaldehyde crosslinking induces subtle changes in the ultrastructure of the microtubule, similar to what happens with the binding of some drugs or physiological molecules such as GTP6.
The direct visualization of microtubules in unstained, unfixed samples is, therefore, often desirable. To achieve this, one technical solution is second harmonic generation (SHG) microscopy7, which is based on the ability of bundles of parallel microtubules to act as harmonophores and to emit frequency-doubled light when properly illuminated with an intense, pulsed infrared laser. Although a stronger and more stable second harmonic signal can be generated from collagen and myosin, which are the only other two biological materials known to be capable of frequency-doubling, the signal from tubulin has been used so far mostly to study mitotic spindle rearrangements8,9,10 and axonal microtubule morphology11,12,13.
In this work, we introduce a novel use of SHG microscopy as a diagnostic tool to distinguish central nervous system (CNS) tissues affected by tubulin beta 4 A (TUBB4A) tubulinopathy from their healthy counterparts14. Some of the mutations occurring in this predominantly neural isoform of tubulin, like those causing hypomyelination and atrophy of the basal ganglia and cerebellum (H-ABC), induce microtubule overfilling in the oligodendrocytes15,16; the cytoskeletal alterations, in turn, are associated with downstream effects like dysmyelination, with profound impairment of the motor and sensory pathways16,17,18,19. The taiep murine model used in this work displays abnormal microtubule content in the oligodendrocytes and recapitulates most of the sensory-motor symptoms of H-ABC patients17. The protocol explains how to image structures as the corpus callosum and the cerebellum, which are usually highly myelinated and which are severely affected in human patients as well as in the taiep rat19, to highlight the differences in SH signals between healthy and mutant tissues.

<table><tbody><tr><td>405/10 nm BrightLine(R) single-band bandpass filter&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Semrock</td><td>FF01-405/10-25</td><td>32 mm diameter, with housing ring</td></tr><tr><td>Black Nylon, Polyurethane-Coated Fabric</td><td>Thorlabs</td><td>BK5</td><td>5&#039; x 9&#039; (1.5 m x 2.7 m) x 0.005&quot; (0.12 mm) Thick&amp;nbsp;</td></tr><tr><td>Blades for vibratome</td><td>any commercial; e.g. Wilkinson Sword</td><td></td><td>&amp;nbsp;Classic stainless steel double edge razor blades</td></tr><tr><td>Cell culture dishes, 35 mm</td><td>any commercial; e.g. Falcon</td><td>351008</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Confocal microscope</td><td>Zeiss</td><td>LSM710NLO AxioObserver Z1</td><td>Inverted microscope, objective used is LCI Plan-Neofluar 25x/0.8 NA&amp;nbsp;</td></tr><tr><td>Cooler</td><td>any commercial</td><td></td><td>Any insulated, polystyrene box could work, to mantain the sample at about 37 &amp;deg;C</td></tr><tr><td>Corn stach</td><td>e.g. Maizena</td><td></td><td>From the supermarket</td></tr><tr><td>Coverslips #1.5</td><td>any commercial</td><td></td><td>Rectangular</td></tr><tr><td>Cyanoacrylate glue</td><td>e.g. Loctite</td><td></td><td>To glue the brain to the masking tape</td></tr><tr><td>Fine forceps</td><td>fine science tools</td><td>11412-11</td><td>To manipulate tissue sections by handling from the meninges</td></tr><tr><td>Fine scissors</td><td>fine science tools</td><td>14370-22</td><td>To cut the skin&amp;nbsp;</td></tr><tr><td>Fine scissors curved tip</td><td>fine science tools</td><td>14061-09</td><td>To cut along the midline</td></tr><tr><td>Formaldehyde 37%</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich</td><td>252549</td><td>To dilute 1:10 in PBS</td></tr><tr><td>Friedman Rongeur</td><td>fine science tools</td><td>16000-14</td><td>To cut the bone</td></tr><tr><td>Gel packs</td><td>any commercial</td><td></td><td>Prewarmed to 37 &amp;deg;C, to help mantaining the temperature inside the cooler</td></tr><tr><td>Glass Pasteur pipette, modified</td><td>any commercial</td><td></td><td>To transfer the tissue section</td></tr><tr><td>Hanks&amp;prime; Balanced Salt solution (HBSS)</td><td>Gibco</td><td>14025-076</td><td>Could be prepared from powders</td></tr><tr><td>Kelly hemostats</td><td>fine science tools</td><td>13018-14</td><td>To separate the bone&amp;nbsp;</td></tr><tr><td>Masking tape</td><td>any commercial</td><td></td><td>To protect th surface of the specimen plate</td></tr><tr><td>NDD module, type C</td><td>Zeiss</td><td>000000-1410-101</td><td>To detect the signal, reducing light loss. Housing the 000000-1935-163 filter set with the SP485</td></tr><tr><td>Offset bone nippers</td><td>fine science tools</td><td>16101-10</td><td>To cut the bone</td></tr><tr><td>Phosphate buffered saline (PBS)</td><td>Gibco</td><td>10010-031</td><td>Could be prepared from powders or tabs</td></tr><tr><td>Pulsed laser</td><td>Coherent</td><td>Chameleon Vision II</td><td>680&amp;ndash;1080 nm tunable laser</td></tr><tr><td>Scalpel</td><td>any commercial</td><td></td><td>Straight blade with sharp point</td></tr><tr><td>Standard pattern forceps</td><td>fine science tools</td><td>11000-18</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Vannas spring scissors</td><td>fine science tools</td><td>15018-10</td><td>To cut meninges that remain joined to both the slice obtained from vibratome cutting and the section glued to the specimen plate.</td></tr><tr><td>Vibratome</td><td>any commercial; e.g. Leica</td><td>VT1200</td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

label-free non-linear optics for the study of tubulin-dependent defects in central myelin

Label-Free Non-Linear Optics for the Study of Tubulin-Dependent Defects in Central Myelin

The satisfactory visualization of cytoskeletal components in the brain is challenging. The ubiquitous distribution of the networks of microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments in all the neural tissues, together with the variability in the outcomes of fluorescent protein fusion strategies and the&#160;limited applicability to dynamic studies of antibodies and drugs as chromophore vehicles, make classical optical approaches not as effective as for other proteins. When tubulin needs to be studied, the label-free generation of second harmonics is a very suitable option due to the non-centrosymmetric organization of the molecule. This technique, when conjugated to microscopy, can qualitatively describe the volumetric distribution of parallel bundles of microtubules in biological samples, with the additional advantage of working with fresh tissues that are unfixed and unpermeabilized. This work describes how to image tubulin with a commercial second harmonic generation microscopy setup to highlight microtubules in the tubulin-enriched structures of the oligodendrocytes, as&#160;in hypomyelination with atrophy of the basal ganglia and cerebellum (H-ABC) tubulinopathy, a recently described myelin disorder.

The images obtained with this methodology have an intrinsic low background level due to the very limited number of harmonophores present in biological tissues, which is one of the significant advantages of the method.
When the fibers of the corpus callosum are imaged, fiber-like short structures and rounded elements can be consistently found in the taiep brain (Figure 3B), while the corpus callosum of the control brain shows a much more heterogeneous and ...

In this article, we present a protocol to detect microtubule-loaded oligodendrocytes in a model of tubulinopathy through a simple, innovative second harmonic generation microscopy approach.

The satisfactory visualization of cytoskeletal components in the brain is challenging. The ubiquitous distribution of the networks of microtubules, ...

label-free-non-linear-optics-for-study-tubulin-dependent-defects

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

In this video, we describe the interference reflection microscopy (IRM) technique to visualize microtubules growing on a coverslip surface in the presence of a suitable buffer. Upon illumination with incident light, the coverslip-buffer interface and buffer-microtubule interface reflect light, which combines to create an interference pattern, enabling the visualization of microtubules as high-contrast images against a bright background.

Interference Reflection Microscopy for Label-Free Visualization of Microtubule Dynamics

Source: Piazza, V., et al., Label-Free Non-Linear Optics for the Study of Tubulin-Dependent Defects in Central Myelin. J. Vis. Exp. (2023)This video demonstrates the procedure for imaging microtubule abnormalities in a rat brain tissue slice using a two-photon excitation microscope. It employs second harmonic generation (SHG) signals to detect tubulin defects and reduced myelin production.

Second Harmonic Generation Imaging in a Rat Model to Study Tubulin Defects

We present a protocol utilizing two-photon excitation time-lapse microscopy to simultaneously visualize the dynamics of axon and myelin injuries in real time. This proposed protocol permits studies of both intrinsic and extrinsic factors which can influence central myelinated axon fate after injury and contribute to permanent clinical disability.

An Ex Vivo Laser-induced Spinal Cord Injury Model to Assess Mechanisms of Axonal Degeneration in Real-time

Immunolabeling methods to analyze distinct populations of microtubules in the developing zebrafish brain are described here, which are broadly applicable to other tissues. The first protocol outlines an optimized method for immunolabeling stable and dynamic microtubules. The second protocol provides a method to image and quantify nascent microtubules specifically.

Use of Immunolabeling to Analyze Stable, Dynamic, and Nascent Microtubules in the Zebrafish Embryo

Here, we present a step-by-step protocol for imaging myelinated axons in a fixed brain slice using a label-free nanoscale imaging technique based on spectral reflectometry.

Spectral Reflectometric Microscopy on Myelinated Axons In Situ

Here we present a robust and detailed method of microtubule dynamics analysis in cells synchronized in prometaphase using live-cell spinning disk confocal microscopy and MATLAB-based image processing.

Measurement of Microtubule Dynamics by Spinning Disk Microscopy in Monopolar Mitotic Spindles

A protocol for imaging the dynamic microtubules in vivo using fluorescently labeled End binding protein has been presented. We described the methods to label, image, and analyze the dynamic microtubules in the Posterior lateral microtubule (PLM) neuron of C. elegans.

In vivo Assessment of Microtubule Dynamics and Orientation in Caenorhabditis elegans Neurons

This protocol is dedicated to the microtubule plus-end visualization by EB3 protein transfection to study their dynamic properties in primary cell culture. The protocol was implemented on human primary skin fibroblasts obtained from Huntington's disease patients.

Microtubule Plus-End Dynamics Visualization in Huntington's Disease Model based on Human Primary Skin Fibroblasts

Here, a TIRF microscopy-based in vitro reconstitution assay is presented to simultaneously quantify and compare the dynamics of two microtubule populations. A method is described to simultaneously view the collective activity of multiple microtubule-associated proteins on crosslinked microtubule bundles and single microtubules.

Simultaneous Visualization of the Dynamics of Crosslinked and Single Microtubules In Vitro by TIRF Microscopy

Here, we present a protocol for reconstituting microtubule bundles in vitro and directly quantifying the forces exerted within them using simultaneous optical trapping and total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy. This assay allows for nanoscale-level measurement of the forces and displacements generated by protein ensembles within active microtubule networks.

Directly Measuring Forces Within Reconstituted Active Microtubule Bundles

This article presents a protocol for the formation of microtubule assemblies in the shape of tactoids using MAP65, a plant-based microtubule crosslinker, and PEG as a crowding agent.

Self-Assembly of Microtubule Tactoids

Learn second harmonic generation microscopy for detecting microtubule-loaded oligodendrocytes in tubulinopathy models. This label-free method advances understanding of central myelin pathology.

Label-Free Non-Linear Optics for the Study of Tubulin-Dependent Defects in Central Myelin

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