Name: centrosome duplication in the cell cycle
Uploaded: 2021-04-07T12:12:01.000Z
Duration: 2 min 25 s
Channel: JoVE

الجسيم المركزي هو منظم الأنابيب الدقيقة الرئيسي لخلية حقيقية النواة ويلعب دورا حيويا في تكوين المغزل الانقسامي ، وهو ترتيب ثنائي القطب من الأنابيب الدقيقة التي تفصل بين الكروماتيدات الشقيقة. يتكون قطبا المغزل من اثنين من الجسيمات المركزية الموضوعة بشكل معاكس.
قبل دورة الخلية ، تحتوي معظم الخلايا الحيوانية على جسيم مركزي واحد فقط في السيتوبلازم. يساعد مركب كيناز أو Cdk المعتمد على G1 / S-cyclin - الذي يتكون من cyclin E و Cdk2 في الخلايا الحيوانية - على تحفيز ازدواجية الجسيم المركزي بالإضافة إلى دخول دورة الخلية. 
يتكون كل جسيم مركزي من اثنين من المريكزات ، والتي يتم تغليفها بواسطة مصفوفة بروتينية حول مركزية.
يبدأ ازدواجية الجسيم المركزي في مرحلة G1 المبكرة عندما يقوم الانفصال بفك الاشتباك بين المريكزين. البروتين الذي ينتمي إلى عائلة بروتين كيناز الشبيهة بالبولو ، Plk-4 ، هو منظم مهم للتكوين الحيوي للمنتز المركزية لدى البشر.
بالقرب من بداية المرحلة S ، يبدأ المريكز الابنة في النمو بزاوية قائمة على قاعدة كل مطرز.
خلال G2 ، عادة ما تنتهي المريكزات الابنة من الاستطالة. تظل المريكزات الأربعة قريبة من بعضها البعض في الجسيم المركزي حتى تدخل الخلية في الانقسام.
في بداية الانقسام ، ينقسم الجسيم المركزي إلى قسمين ، وهو ما يعرف أيضا باسم انفصال الجسيم المركزي. يحتوي كل من الجسيمين المركزيين الناتجين على زوج من المريكزات والمصفوفة المحيطة بالمفاصل. كلا الجسيمات المركزية نواة مجموعة من الأنابيب الدقيقة ، بشكل أساسي في المنترول الأم ، ويشكلان بشكل جماعي المغزل الانقسامي.
تتشابه دورة حياة الجسيم المركزي والكروموسوم في عدة جوانب. يحدث تكرارها مرة واحدة فقط في كل دورة وكلاهما يتكرر من خلال عملية شبه متحفظة حيث يتم إنتاج نسخة جديدة من النسخة الأصلية الموجودة مسبقا.
أيضا ، مثل الكروموسومات ، يتم توزيع نسخة واحدة من الجسيم المركزي بالتساوي على كل خلية ابنة بعد الانقسام.
يمكن أن يؤدي الازدواجية المفرطة للجسيم المركزي إلى إضعاف تجميع المغزل الانقسامي والتسبب في فصل الكروموسومات بشكل غير صحيح ، مما قد يسبب أمراضا مثل السرطان.

<ol>
	<li style="هامش يسار: 0.5 بوصة;">فوجيتا, هيروكي, يوكي يوشينو, وناتسوكو تشيبا. 2015. "تنظيم دورة الجسيم المركزي". علم الأورام الجزيئي والخلوي 3 (2). https://doi.org/10.1080/23723556.2015.1075643.</li>
	<li style="هامش يسار: 0.5 بوصة؛">Nigg, إريك أ., وأندرو ج. هولاند. 2018. "مرة واحدة ومرة واحدة فقط: آليات ازدواجية المريكز وإلغاء تنظيمها في المرض". مراجعات Nature بيولوجيا الخلية الجزيئية 19 (5): 297-312. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrm.2017.127.</li>
</ol>

ازدواجية الجسيم المركزي

Centrosome Duplication

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مركز تنظيم الأنابيب الدقيقة الأساسي (MTOC) في الخلايا الحيوانية هو الجسيم المركزي. يحتوي الجسيم المركزي على اثنين من المريكزات الأسطوانية في قلبه. يتكون كل مركز مركزي من تسع مجموعات من ثلاثة أنابيب دقيقة متماسكة بواسطة البروتينات. يتم وضع المريكزات بزوايا قائمة على بعضها البعض وتحيط بها سحابة بروتينية عديمة الشكل تسمى المصفوفة المحيطة بالمركز، أو المادة المحيطة بالمركز (PCMالتضمين النبضي المُرمز).

للتأكد من أن كل خلية وليدة تتلقى جسيمًا مركزيًا بعد انقسام الخلية، يبدأ تضاعف الجسيم المركزي في وقت مبكر من دورة الخلية. يتم تنظيم ازدواج الجسيم المركزي بإحكام عن طريق ضوابط دورة الخلية - مثل كيناز 2 المعتمد على السيكلين (Cdk2) - لمنع حدوثه أكثر من مرة في كل دورة خلية. وهكذا، بحلول الوقت الذي تصل فيه الخلية إلى الانقسام الفتيلي، يكون لديها اثنان من الجسيمات المركزية.

يتزامن ازدواج الجسيم المركزي مع مراحل دورة الخلية. خلال المرحلة G_1 من دورة الخلية، ينفصل المريكزان في الجسيم المركزي، وهي عملية تسمى الارتباك المركزي.

خلال المرحلتين G_1 وS، يتم تكرار الجسيمات المركزية. يبدأ مريكز جديد، يسمى المريكز المركزي، في التشكل والاستطالة عند قاعدة كل من المريكزين الموجودين. تستطيل المريكزات خلال S وG_2 حتى تصبح كبيرة مثل المريكزات الأقدم. تظل المريكزات الأربعة قريبة من بعضها البعض داخل PCM الموسع حتى تدخل الخلية في الانقسام.

خلال مرحلة G_2، يتراكم γ-tubulin وبروتينات PCM الأخرى في الجسيم المركزي، وهي عملية تسمى نضوج الجسيم المركزي.

أثناء الانتقال بين المرحلتين G_2 وM، تبدأ الجسيمات المركزية في الانفصال. ينفصل المريكزان الأم، وتقوم البروتينات المحركة للأنيبيبات الدقيقة بإبعاد الجسمين المركزيين عن بعضهما البعض.

يمكن أن تؤدي الأخطاء في تنظيم الجسيم المركزي إلى حدوث خلل في عدد الكروموسومات والجسيمات المركزية. تشوهات الجسيم المركزي والعيوب في تقدم دورة الجسيم المركزي متورطة في أمراض متعددة، ولا سيما السرطان. ترتبط البروتينات الكابتة للورم والجينات المسرطنة بالتغيرات الضارة في الجسيمات المركزية لخلايا الورم، مما يجعل هذه البروتينات هدفًا علاجيًا جذابًا.

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مركز تنظيم الأنابيب الدقيقة الأساسي (MTOC) في الخلايا الحيوانية هو الجسيم المركزي. يحتوي الجسيم المركزي على مركزين أسطوانيين في قلبه. كل...

Education

JoVE Core

Molecular Biology

البيولوجيا الجزيئية

Unit 2

الوحدة الثانية

Cell Division

انقسام الخلية

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

المصطلحات والمفاهيم الأساسية

centrosome duplication in the cell cycle

Centrosome duplication is a key part of the animal cell cycle. The centrosome is the main microtubule organizing center, or MTOC, in animal cells. It contains two cylindrical centrioles at its core. Each centriole has nine sets of three microtubules held together by proteins. The two centrioles sit at right angles and are surrounded by the pericentriolar matrix, or PCM, a shapeless protein cloud.

Duplication starts early in the cell cycle so each daughter cell can receive a centrosome after cell division. Cell cycle controls keep this process tightly regulated. Cyclin-dependent kinase 2, or Cdk2, helps prevent duplication from happening more than once in a single cell cycle. By the time the cell reaches mitosis, it has two centrosomes.

Centrosome duplication matches the stages of the cell cycle. In G1, the two centrioles separate. This separation is called centrosome disorientation. During G1 and S, new centrioles called procentrioles begin to form at the base of each older centriole. The procentrioles then elongate through S and G2 until they are the same size as the older centrioles.

The four centrioles stay close together inside the enlarged PCM until mitosis begins. During G2, gamma-tubulin and other PCM proteins build up in the centrosome. This step is called centrosome maturation. Between G2 and M, the centrosomes start to separate. The two mother centrioles disconnect, and microtubule motor proteins move the centrosomes apart.

Problems in centrosome regulation can lead to abnormal numbers of centrosomes and chromosomes. These defects are linked to several diseases, especially cancer. Tumor suppressor proteins and oncogenes are associated with harmful changes in tumor cell centrosomes. Because of this, they are important targets for treatment research.

Centrosome Duplication in the Cell Cycle

mitosis and cytokinesis

Mitosis and Cytokinesis Stages

Mitosis and cytokinesis are the two main steps of cell division. Mitosis is the process that divides the nucleus, while cytokinesis splits the rest of the cell. During mitosis, the cell’s genetic material is separated into two sets. This helps form two new nuclei with the same genetic information. Cytokinesis then completes division by separating the cytoplasm, which creates two daughter cells. These stages work together to make cell division possible in growing and repairing tissues.

duplication of chromatin structure

Chromatin Rebuilding During DNA Replication

Chromatin rebuilding during DNA replication helps cells copy DNA and pass on chromosome structure to daughter cells. During cell division, the genome must be disrupted and then reassembled across the whole chromosome. This process allows chromatin to be inherited, rebuilt, and maintained in new cells. The basic unit of chromatin is the nucleosome. A nucleosome contains DNA wrapped around an octamer of histone proteins, with short linker DNA between neighboring nucleosomes. The histone proteins...

cohesins

Cohesins in Meiosis and Genetic Disorders

Cohesin protein complexes act like molecular glue that keeps sister chromatids together. They are important in both mitosis and meiosis. In mitosis, cohesin complexes are removed from chromosomes before anaphase begins. Meiosis has two rounds of chromosome separation. Meiosis I separates homologous chromosomes, while Meiosis II separates sister chromatids. This process produces four daughter cells. The Meiosis I cohesin complex is made of four subunits: Smc1, Smc3, Rec8, and Scc3. Rec8...

condensins

How Condensins Shape Mitotic Chromosomes

Condensins shape chromosomes during mitosis, the stage when a cell divides. These large protein complexes use ATP, the cell’s energy molecule, to help turn loose post-interphase DNA into compact, separate chromosomes. They organize and segregate chromosomal DNA so it can be passed on correctly. Plant and animal cells contain two condensin complexes: condensin I and condensin II. Each complex has five subunits. Two are SMC, or Structural Maintenance of Chromosomes, subunits. One is a kleisin...

the mitotic spindle

How the Mitotic Spindle Separates Chromosomes

The mitotic spindle is a microtubule-based structure that helps separate chromosomes during cell division. It forms in eukaryotic cells and moves sister chromatids to opposite ends of the parent cell. This leaves each new cell nucleus with the correct genetic material. A bipolar spindle has two poles, and that shape is important for chromosome segregation. In many animal cells, two centrosomes are present when mitosis begins. Each centrosome helps organize a circular set of microtubules at one...

centrosome duplication

Centrosome duplication is a key part of the animal cell cycle. The centrosome is the main microtubule organizing center, or MTOC, in animal cells. It contains two cylindrical centrioles at its core. Each centriole has nine sets of three microtubules held together by proteins. The two centrioles sit at right angles and are surrounded by the pericentriolar matrix, or PCM, a shapeless protein cloud. Duplication starts early in the cell cycle so each daughter cell can receive a centrosome after...

microtubule instability

Microtubule Growth and Shrinkage

Microtubules are hollow, cylindrical filaments in the cell. They are about 25 nm wide and can range from 200 nm to 25 μm in length. Their main building blocks are GTP-bound tubulin subunits that form αβ-heterodimers, which then assemble into protofilaments. These protofilaments join by lateral bonds to create stable microtubule cylinders. Microtubules are highly dynamic because they repeatedly assemble and break down. They can even grow on one end while shrinking on the other at the same time.

spindle assembly

How the Mitotic Spindle Forms

The mitotic spindle forms through centrosome-mediated, chromatin-mediated, and microtubule-mediated pathways. These pathways often work at the same time. Together, they build a strong spindle apparatus for cell division. In most cells, centrosomes are the main sites where microtubules begin to grow. During the G2 to prophase transition, centrosomes mature and make more microtubules. The growing microtubules extend from both centrosomes, and their plus-ends search for chromosomes by attaching...

attachment of sister chromatids

Kinetochore-Microtubule Binding in Mitosis

Kinetochore-microtubule binding helps chromosomes line up and separate during mitosis. After the nuclear envelope breaks down, condensed chromosomes are exposed to the bipolar microtubules of the mitotic spindle. The kinetochore is a large, disc-shaped protein complex at the centromere region of each sister chromatid, and it serves as the microtubule binding site. Usually, the plus-end of a single microtubule inserts into the kinetochore. In some cases, a kinetochore first makes lateral...

forces acting on chromosomes

Chromosome Movement During Mitosis

Chromosome movement during mitosis depends on several small forces that act at different times and positions in the cell. In prometaphase, these forces help chromosomes move to the equatorial plane and line up at the metaphase plate. Because the forces change with location and stage, chromosome behavior also changes as mitosis continues. Microtubules and motor proteins create two main kinds of force on chromosomes: poleward force and anti-poleward force, also called polar-ejection force.

separation of sister chromatids

Anaphase Start and Chromatid Release

Anaphase starts when sister chromatids are released from one another and pulled toward opposite spindle poles. Before that happens, cohesion along the chromosomal arms is reduced from prophase to metaphase, which helps the sister chromatids resolve. A residual cohesin link still holds them together until the metaphase-to-anaphase transition. This leftover connection helps prevent early separation and reduces the risk of aneuploidy, or the wrong number of chromosomes, in daughter cells. At the...

the spindle assembly checkpoint

How Cells Safeguard Chromosome Separation

The spindle assembly checkpoint helps cells safeguard chromosome separation during anaphase. It acts as a molecular surveillance system. The checkpoint checks whether the steps needed for chromosome segregation are complete before the cell moves on. Many proteins work together to control this checkpoint. If mutations affect these proteins, a cell may enter anaphase too early. Chromosomes can then separate before the needed steps are finished. When this happens, the daughter cells may receive...

anaphase a and b

Chromatid Movement by Microtubule Forces

Chromatid movement during anaphase depends on microtubule forces at the spindle. Kinetochore microtubules grow from the spindle poles, and their plus ends attach to kinetochores on sister chromatids. The kinetochore protein complex Ndc80 makes low-affinity links with the microtubule plus end.

the contractile ring

How Cells Build the Contractile Ring

Contractile rings are built from microfilaments and help separate daughter cells during cytokinesis. This ring forms as the cell cycle moves forward, but the exact timing and coordination with other cell cycle events are still not fully understood. RhoA, a small GTPase in the Ras superfamily, controls contractile ring assembly and function. The inactive form of RhoA is bound to GDP. A guanine nucleotide exchange factor, or Rho-GEF, is located in the cortex region, where the next cell division...

determining the plane of cell division

How Cells Set the Division Plane

How cells set the division plane during cell division affects daughter cell size and, in many cases, cell fate. The plane of division is perpendicular to the plane of chromosome segregation. Different organisms use different cues to place it, based on their shape and needs. In animal cells, the cleavage furrow forms along the division plane from the cell cortex, the area just below the plasma membrane. The mitotic spindle is the main guide for this position. If the spindle axis changes, the...

the phragmoplast

How Plant Cells Build a New Wall

Plant cells build a new wall during cytokinesis with help from the phragmoplast. This plant structure forms from the central spindle and related cell parts as the cell finishes dividing. In animal cells, the comparable structure is the midbody, but in plants the phragmoplast expands outward to guide new wall formation. The mature phragmoplast has a donut-like shape. It has an outer leading region, a middle transition zone, and an inner lagging region. New microtubules are assembled...

distribution of cytoplasmic content

How Organelles Are Split During Cytokinesis

Cytokinesis splits a cell’s chromosomes and organelles into two daughter cells. Before cell division, organelles grow and divide. They cannot be made from scratch, so each daughter cell must inherit at least one copy to survive. Many details of this organelle sorting process are still not fully known. The cytoplasm contains organelles, salts, proteins, and water. Small organelles such as peroxisomes and lysosomes can be shared by simple diffusion. Because cells contain many copies of these...

anaphase promoting complex

APC Activates Chromosome Separation

The anaphase-promoting complex, or APC, helps control cell cycle progression by destroying specific proteins at the right time. These proteins are tagged with ubiquitin by ubiquitin ligases and then broken down by the proteasome. The SCF (Skp1/Cullin/F-box) complex and APC are two major ubiquitin ligases involved in this process. SCF stays active throughout the cell cycle, but APC turns on during the metaphase-to-anaphase transition. APC becomes active when Cdc20 or Cdh1 binds to it. These...

key terms and concepts

Learn how centrosomes duplicate during G1, S, G2, and M phases, how Cdk2 regulates the process, and why centrosome errors are linked to cancer.

Centrosome Duplication in the Cell Cycle | JoVE K12

molecular biology

JoVE Core Molecular Biology showcases the molecular processes of the cell through clear and concise animated video lessons. Additionally, in scientist-in-action videos, these concepts' application is demonstrated through real experiments in modern laboratories.

Centrosome Duplication in the Cell Cycle

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