方法文章

小龙虾开肌神经肌肉接头的历史视角与生理学演示

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DOI:

10.3791/1595

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2009年11月9日

本文内容

摘要

螯虾腿部的开肌因其在肌肉表型、突触生理学及可塑性研究中的历史重要性和实验多样性而被广泛采用。

摘要

本文介绍了利用甲壳动物神经肌肉接头(NMJ)开放制备模型所取得的一些关键重要发现,并说明该模型制备仍具有广阔的研究潜力。通过了解其研究历史,可以理解为何直至今日这一NMJ模型仍为探讨突触前和突触后功能及其可塑性问题提供了丰富的研究平台。该制备模型在进行细胞内和细胞外电生理记录以及成像时,神经末梢具有良好的存活率且易于操作,具有显著优势。高输出与低输出末梢中囊泡动力学及融合机制背后的调控原理亟待深入研究。此外,该制备还可作为可验证的模型系统,用于计算模拟与干预,以检验突触功能理论模型中的关键变量,例如短时程易化过程中的钙离子动力学。活性区的突触复杂性以及量子化释放的统计学特性,同样是未来在实验与计算层面有待进一步探索的重要方向。 关键词:神经肌肉接头,甲壳动物,突触可塑性,电生理学,成像,囊泡动力学,量子化释放,活性区,钙动力学,计算模型

方案

简介

多年来,甲壳动物的神经肌肉接头为生理学特别是突触生理学研究做出了重要贡献。其易于解剖和良好的存活率,可能是促使早期解剖学家以及后来的生理学家选择甲壳动物作为实验材料的关键因素。其中,小龙虾尤其容易从大多数淡水溪流和湖泊中获得,且相较于需要低温海水环境的甲壳动物,更易于在实验室条件下饲养和维持。

19世纪末,一位动物学家特别关注某些甲壳类物种(例如小龙虾),并撰写了一本名为《The Crayfish》(T.H. Huxley,1879年)的著作。多年来,该书一直是研究这些生物的指导性文献,至今仍被誉为关于小龙虾生命史、解剖学与生理学的权威专著。赫胥黎将小龙虾视为全面深入研究动物学各个方面的模式动物,因此其著作具有高度综合性。这一时期恰逢生理学迅速发展的阶段,1880年代末期,Ringer阐明了维持蛙心制备所需离子的作用(Ringer,1882a,b),这可能是生理学实验在包括小龙虾在内的多种物种中迅速推进的原因之一。此外,van Harreveld于1936年已描述了一种用于维持甲壳类动物制备的生理盐水溶液。

令人惊讶的是,小龙虾腿部开肌的神经支配在这一历史时期也正在被描述(Biedermann, 1887)。但更令人惊讶的是,法国的查尔斯·里歇(Charles Richet)当时已在开展针对小龙虾肌肉的生理学研究。事实上,这些在小龙虾中进行的实验可能是首次证明神经肌肉接头(NMJ)存在易化现象的研究(Richet, 1879;另见 Richet, 1881)。在随后的几十年中,研究人员从张力产生和解剖结构方面对小龙虾的神经肌肉接头进行了系统的形态学与生理学描述(Van Harreveld 和 Wiersma, 1936)。

细胞内记录技术的出现(采用尖锐电极,Ling 和 Gerard,1949)重新激发了该领域对一系列新问题的研究。甲壳类动物的肌肉已知能够产生等级性收缩(Katz 与 Kuffler,1946;Katz,1949;Wiersma,1949),但直到1953年,Fatt 和 Katz 才首次在蟹类肌纤维中记录到短时程易化的跨膜电位。

1961年,Dudel 和 Kuffler 再次以螯虾肢体的 opener 肌肉为研究对象,证明了该肌肉中存在易化现象,并首次展示了st 时间上,突触前抑制现象(1961a,b;Dudel,1963,1965a)被揭示。他们还报道了该神经肌肉接头(NMJ)突触传递的量子化特性(1961b)。在过去的50年中,该制备方法及用于监测突触生理学的各种技术受到了广泛关注。为简要概述使用该制备方法的研究,我们首先指出,整块肌肉由一条兴奋性轴突和一条抑制性轴突支配,且这两条轴突可被选择性刺激。Atwood(1964)通过刺激串示明,兴奋性突触后电位可被易化并产生肌肉张力。Iravani(1965)报道了肌肉不同区域在突触反应上的区域性差异。随后不久,Dudel(1965a,b)记录了 opener 肌肉神经末梢沿线的电位,并证明神经调质5-羟色胺通过增加平均量子含量来增强突触传递。

此时已确定甲壳动物肌肉对谷氨酸和多种氨基酸以及γ-氨基丁酸(GABA)有反应(Van Harreveld 和 Mendelson,1959;Robbins,1959;Kerkut et al., 1965)。GABA 的抑制性反应由 Florey(Bazemore et al., 1956, 1957)及其他研究者(Boistel 和 Fatt,1958)鉴定。随后,Kravitz 从龙虾开肌器制备物的轴突中分离并证实了 GABA 的存在(Kravitz 和 Potter,1965;Kravitz et al., 1963a,b;Kravitz,1962)。

小龙虾肌肉不仅提供了易于获取的实验材料,还使得研究人员能够从生理学和结构水平上研究单个可识别的运动神经元如何产生多种突触后反应。特别是,开肌仅由一个兴奋性运动神经元支配,但在不同位置记录到的兴奋性突触后电位(EPSP)在背侧浅层肌纤维上可相差50倍以上(Bittner, 1968a,b),在腹侧浅层肌纤维上最多可相差8倍(Iravani, 1965)。

自从发现螯虾开肌神经肌肉接头(NMJ)不仅存在短时程易化(STF),还表现出长时程易化(LTF)以来(Sherman 和 Atwood,1971),这些现象背后的机制亟需阐明。附带一提,长时程增强(LTP)在两年后被发现存在于脊椎动物大脑中(Bliss 和 Lømo,1973),但该研究并未引用此前在螯虾 NMJ 上首次发现该现象的原始文献。自此以后,许多研究者利用螯虾开肌的 NMJ 作为模型,集中研究 STF 和 LTF 的特性及其细胞机制(Atwood,1973,1976,1982;Atwood et al.,1994;Zucker,1973,1974a,b;Bittner 和 Sewell,1976;Parnas et al.,1982a,b,c,d;Dudel et al.,1983;Vyshedskiy 和 Lin,1997a,b,c)。此外,研究重点还包括理解单个支配开肌上不同肌纤维的运动神经元,如何产生如此多样化的突触反应(Linder,1974;Günzel et al.,1993;Govind et al.,1994;Iravani,1965;Atwood,1967;Bittner,1968a,b;Sherman 和 Atwood,1972;Zucker,1974a;Parnas et al.,1982a;Zucker 和 Haydon,1988;Dudel,1989a,b,c,d)。

通过超微结构分析可研究突触结构以解释突触反应的差异性(Jahromi 和 Atwood,1974)。利用轴突内注射 Ca2+ 和 Na+ 指示剂以及 Ca2+ 缓冲剂,可研究由活动引起的离子差异(Mulkey 和 Zucker,1993;Winslow) 等,2002),这些流可以在终端内进行建模(Winslow 等,1994;Cooper 等,1996b)。活动依赖性适应(Atwood 等,1991)以及神经调节剂受体亚型的药理学鉴定(Dropic 等,2005;Ruffner 等,1999;Sparks 和 Cooper,2004;Sparks 等,2004;Tabor 和 Cooper,2002)影响突触囊泡池及其动力学(Logsdon 等,2005;Southard 等,2000;Sparks 等., 2003)也已得到研究,这引发了诸多有待解决的新问题。关于钙离子在STF期间的作用与在 opener 神经肌肉接头突触传递中膜去极化作用的概念,导致了一些不同观点(Mulkey 和 Zucker,1991;Hochner 等, 1989).

近年来,单个运动神经元突触强度和突触易化的区域差异已得到研究,这些差异似乎源于局部突触前结构和生理特性的不同(Atwood et al., 1994; Atwood 和 Cooper, 1995, 1996a,b; Cooper et al., 1995b, 1996a,b)。电镜研究的超微结构分析表明,膨体中含有大部分突触接触位点(Florey 和 Cahill, 1982; Cooper et al., 1995b)。沿着单一神经末梢单独测量时,突触传递强度随长度递减,这似乎与突触结构的复杂性有关(Cooper et al., 1996a; Govind et al., 1994)。突触结构的差异可能部分解释了在不同刺激频率下 Ca²⁺ 内流的差异(Cooper et al., 1995b, 1996b)。

由于开肌肌纤维在肌肉表型和生物化学方面存在区域差异(Günzel, 等,1993;Mykles 等,2002),这些区域被划分为不同区域,可能解释了一种发育调控的肌肉表型,该表型影响并维持了运动神经元的区域性差异(Mykles) 等,2002)。逆行性影响的概念已在蛙类骨骼肌中进行研究(Nudell 和 Grinnell,1983),也在龙虾中开展过研究(Katz) 等,1993)以及螯虾(Lnenicka 和 Mellon,1983)中均有较为令人信服的证据支持。在甲壳类运动神经元中,单个神经元的不同末梢之间可相距1厘米至10厘米,因此在空间上完全有可能实现对某一末梢的局部调控而不影响其他末梢。与脊椎动物不同,无脊椎动物的运动单位可能包含不止一块肌肉(参见 Atwood,1973 年的综述)。支配整个开肌的兴奋性运动神经元同时也支配腿部更近端节段的伸肌。对开肌肌纤维之间的易化效应进行测量发现,其差异可能与细胞内 Ca2+ 离子的静息水平有关(Cooper 等,2005b)和/或可能协同释放(Parnas 等,1982a,b)

已对开肌终末上高输出和低输出突触之间在结构复杂性上的差异进行了研究,旨在探讨强直性突触易化(STF)过程中突触间活性区募集的量子化特征,但这一问题已被证明难以确定(Lancaster et al., 2007;Viele et al., 2003, 2006)。高输出与低输出突触之间的囊泡池可能在动力学上受到差异性调控,因为已知神经调质对低输出和高输出终末具有不同的效应(Logsdon et al., 2005;Sparks 和 Cooper, 2004;Cooper et al., 2003)。

螯虾开肌肌肉制备方法未来的应用前景,如同50或100年前一样广阔。与其他许多突触制备方法相比,该制备方法至今仍具有很强的稳定性。可在定义明确的多种类型神经末梢中,直接在突触接触部位电生理记录量子化反应,也可对囊泡动态进行成像观察。该制备方法仍保留着可识别单个明确神经元分别介导兴奋性和抑制性输入的独特优势。尽管螯虾不适合进行遗传操作,但仍可通过蛋白质注射研究(He et al., 1999)探讨突触蛋白的功能,类似于在Drosophila中开展的研究。螯虾突触功能与果蝇(Drosophila)神经肌肉接头(NMJs)存在诸多相似之处(Atwood和Cooper,1995,1996a,b),为相关研究提供了基础。运动神经末梢内突触囊泡池的调控同样是未来研究的丰富领域,此外,针对短时程增强(STF)过程中钙离子调控机制的研究(Desai-Shah et al., 2008;Desai-Shah和Cooper,2009),也将有助于阐明突触传递基本机制中诸多尚未解决的奥秘。

方法

解剖

将体长为 6-10 cm 的克氏原螯虾(Procambarus clarkii)(购自 Atchafalaya 生物供应公司,拉森,路易斯安那州),通过用力夹伤其坐节段,诱导其第一或第二步足发生自切。

小龙虾解剖过程,细节展示解剖工具下的解剖结构。
将腿翻转,直至确认外侧(外侧面)朝上放置在解剖板上。通常为拱起的一侧朝上。将腿置于一张滤纸之上有助于操作,以便在进行切割时轻松转动标本。

植物茎部结构,箭头指示特定区域;聚焦于植物解剖学分析。

使用手术刀片折断器和刀片夹持器,用锋利的剃须刀片沿图中所示模式在基节段的角质层上刻划,直至刚好切透。在基节-腕节关节处进行背侧至腹侧切割时,需注意不要向远端切得过深。目前先保持角质层原位不动。

显微镜下的蚯蚓解剖结构;环带示意图,生物学研究,分节结构。

蚯蚓解剖的显微镜图像,显示内部结构及方向标注。

使用剃刀刀片在基节的角质层上刻划,直至按上图所示模式刚好切透一侧基节段的角质层,然后在另一侧重复操作,将近端切口连接起来。操作时需小心,避免切到开肌。可通过在切割角质层时使刀片倾向靠近肌肉的一侧来避免损伤。此外,在进行背侧至腹侧的切口并沿腹侧连接时,需注意不要切得过于靠近近端,因为关节连接处较窄,容易断裂。目前先保留角质层原位不动。

蚯蚓自切过程;显微镜图像;再生研究;科学实验。

应将标本放入生理盐水中。该解剖皿底部应涂有Sylgard(Dow Corning)涂层(厚度为1 cm)。使用Sylgard是为了能够插入昆虫针以固定标本,使其保持静止。此时,将一枚针插入 meropodite 节段切口所形成的窗口的背侧尾端角内。
用精细镊子(#5)轻轻提起远端的几丁质外骨骼,再用剃刀将屈肌纤维从外骨骼上分离,切割方向由远端向近端进行。将外骨骼窗口完全揭除。

植物根部横切面显微图像,突出显示细胞结构和组织分析。

显微镜下组织解剖;箭头指示目标区域;显微技术,细胞分析,实验。

现在在基节-腕节关节处切断肌腱(如下图所示)。切割前务必小心地将肌腱从腿腔中轻轻拉出,并确保仅切割肌腱,避免损伤位于肌腱内侧的主要腿部神经。用镊子夹住已切断的肌腱部位,向尾部方向提起,将屈肌从附着处剥离。此时,主要腿部神经和伸肌已暴露出来。

解剖示意图;静态平衡;显微镜下的蛙肌;教学用生物学装置。

继续至腕掌节段,现在在腕掌节与指节的关节处进行切割。此处可将闭钳肌腱从其附着的角质层上切断。将腕掌节的腹侧(闭钳肌所在侧)节段向下并向尾侧牵拉,以便观察附着于尾侧区域的肌肉。用剃刀切断这些肌肉,注意不要过于靠近关节处切割,以免损伤通往开钳肌的运动神经分支。此时开钳肌已暴露于生理盐水中。

Arthropod dissection under microscope, focusing on chela structure, anatomy analysis tool.

Microscope image of static equilibrium in biological tissue, highlighting structural stability concepts.

返回到腕节区域,以分离包含开肌兴奋性和抑制性运动神经元的神经束。在腕节段最尾部区域,腿部神经束通常包含一个分离的神经束。在此可观察到两个神经束的较短区域,可用精细剪刀横切背侧神经束。然后用5号镊子夹住切断的末端,轻轻向远端牵拉,直至达到腕节段约一半长度的位置。这条较长的神经分支包含开肌的兴奋性神经,而较粗的神经束则包含开肌的抑制性运动神经元。

植物茎横切面、染料吸收过程、显微镜图像、维管组织鉴定。

显微镜下微生物生长;划线平板法;微生物鉴定;实验装置。

解剖显微镜下显示植物维管束,木质部和韧皮部的详细观察。

现在以对角方式切割基节段,以便将昆虫针从基节的背侧穿入。这样可使开肌的腹面朝上,正对观察者(如下图所示)。

色谱结果;显示色素分离的试纸条;实验装置;化学分析。

乌贼解剖示意图,突出显示内部解剖结构,并标注各部位,用于教学。

多毛类动物解剖示意图,显示分节解剖结构及生理构造。

现在可以通过将闭合肌残留的纤维推向角质层并从腕节腔中移出,以清除阻挡张开肌视野的纤维。有时张开肌表面覆盖有结缔组织,可使用#5镊子小心去除。沿张开肌走行并进入指节的主腿神经,可在指节关节起始处切断,或直接用精细镊子轻轻提起。现在可将这条主腿神经,有时还包括明显的伴行血管,沿张开肌长度方向向近端轻柔牵拉,随后将其剪除。

光学显微镜图像,相变动态分析,地质样品研究。

现在,开肌已完全暴露,没有任何组织会妨碍细胞内电极或局灶性大斑电极的放置。

静态平衡:实验装置通过物理实验中的杠杆臂演示平衡状态。

为了刺激开肌的兴奋性神经,现在将标本移至一个装有塑料吸电极的记录室中。记录室中内置了刺激电极,从而无需使用显微操作器来放置刺激电极。将标本固定在记录皿中,并将含有兴奋性神经的神经分支置于吸电极内。

静态平衡;ΣFx=0 装置;带角度的示意图;结构力学实验。

神经纤维动作电位图;波形测量;标注区域;电生理学研究。

(摘自:Mykles, D.L., Medler, S.A., Koenders, A., 和 Cooper, R.L. (2002) 肌原纤维蛋白亚型的表达与螯虾和龙虾螯足及腿部开肌慢肌纤维中突触效能相关。《实验生物学杂志》205 (4): 513-522。)

生理盐水

分离的标本保存在螯虾生理盐水中,即改良的Van Harreveld溶液(单位:mM:205 NaCl;5.3 KCl;13.5 CaCl2.2H2O;2.45 MgCl2.6H2O;5 HEPES,调节pH至7.4)。

记录细胞内兴奋性突触后电位(EPSPs)

为了诱发诱发电位反应,使用 Grass 刺激器选择性地刺激兴奋性轴突。用充满 3 M KCl 的尖锐细胞内电极(电阻为 20 至 30 mOhm)刺入开肌的某一区域。可使用标准的细胞内记录探头和放大器;但我们采用了 Axonclamp 2B 型放大器(Molecular Devices,Sunnyvale,CA,USA)和 1 X LU 探头。通过改变刺激条件,可以获得短时程增强(STF)或其它所需类型的反应。短时程增强通过分别以 10 或 20 秒间隔给予兴奋性神经 10 或 20 个脉冲的刺激序列来实现。刺激序列内的刺激频率可以变化(40、60 和 80 Hz)。这些标准操作程序常规用于细胞内兴奋性突触后电位(EPSP)的记录(Crider & Cooper, 1999, 2000;Cooper et al. 1995b;Dudel, 1983;Sparks 和 Cooper, 2004;Desai-Shah 和 Cooper, 2009)。

开肌可分为三个大致区域:远端、中央和近端。尽管整个开肌由单个运动神经元支配,但神经肌肉接头(NMJs)在结构上存在差异,并且在这三个区域中突触效能具有区域特异性差异(Cooper et al. 1995a,b)。这些区域的肌纤维表型类型也被证明有所不同(Mykles et al. 2002)。基于这些原因,通常选用最远端的肌纤维,因为它们在不同制备样本之间界限清晰,便于保持一致性。

膜片钳电生理学示意图,包含EPSC和mEPSC图谱及神经递质传递分析。

在神经末梢的可识别区域上直接记录局部量子化兴奋性突触后电位

使用活体染料 4-Di-2-Asp(Magrassi et al., 1987)对突触膨体进行可视化,该染料在所用浓度和时间下(5 μM,处理 5 分钟)不影响突触传递(Cooper et al., 1995b)。通过荧光显微镜,可将大斑块记录电极(macro-patch recording electrode)的管腔直接置于单个分离的膨体上方(Cooper et al., 1995c;Stühmer et al., 1983)。为诱发神经末梢反应,需如上所述刺激兴奋性运动神经。通过轻柔地将电极管腔逐个下放并提起覆盖每个膨体,可在一连串可视化的膨体上记录到自发性和诱发性量子化反应。

突触电位通过大斑块电极记录,基本方法如 Dudel(1981)、Wojtowicz et al.(1991)和 Mallart(1993)所述。采用 Kimax 玻璃管(外径:1.5 mm)拉制并火焰抛光,制成内径在 10 至 20 μm 之间的斑块电极尖端。电极腔内充满灌流液。放大器与上述细胞内记录所用的相同。可通过向电极施加测试电流脉冲来测定电极电阻和封接电阻。封接电阻范围为 0.3 至 1.0 MΩ,电极电阻范围为 0.5 至 1.0 MΩ。在整个记录过程中可连续监测封接电阻。

在低频刺激条件下,可以直接计数量子事件。对于每个诱发反应,均可确定其量子事件的数量。对于一系列反应,通过统计量子事件的总数,可基于这些直接计数来估算平均量子含量。计算平均量子含量的一种方法是将量子总数除以反应总数(del Castillo 和 Katz,1954)。此外,也可采用其他方法,例如基于兴奋性突触后电位(EPSP)的峰值幅度或面积进行估算(Cooper et al., 1995b)。

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标签

神经肌肉接头短时程易化长时程易化突触传递局灶性大电极细胞内电极突触效能量子释放突触膨体