Assessing Cell Cycle Progression of Neural Stem and Progenitor Cells in the Mouse Developing Brain after Genotoxic Stress

摘要

Administration of two analogs of thymidine, EdU and BrdU, in pregnant mice allows the analysis of cell cycle progression in neural and progenitor cells in the embryonic mouse brain. This method is useful to determine the effects of genotoxic stress, including ionizing radiation, during brain development.

摘要

Neurons of the cerebral cortex are generated during brain development from different types of neural stem and progenitor cells (NSPC), which form a pseudostratified epithelium lining the lateral ventricles of the embryonic brain. Genotoxic stresses, such as ionizing radiation, have highly deleterious effects on the developing brain related to the high sensitivity of NSPC. Elucidation of the cellular and molecular mechanisms involved depends on the characterization of the DNA damage response of these particular types of cells, which requires an accurate method to determine NSPC progression through the cell cycle in the damaged tissue. Here is shown a method based on successive intraperitoneal injections of EdU and BrdU in pregnant mice and further detection of these two thymidine analogues in coronal sections of the embryonic brain. EdU and BrdU are both incorporated in DNA of replicating cells during S phase and are detected by two different techniques (azide or a specific antibody, respectively), which facilitate their simultaneous detection. EdU and BrdU staining are then determined for each NSPC nucleus in function of its distance from the ventricular margin in a standard region of the dorsal telencephalon. Thus this dual labeling technique allows distinguishing cells that progressed through the cell cycle from those that have activated a cell cycle checkpoint leading to cell cycle arrest in response to DNA damage.

An example of experiment is presented, in which EdU was injected before irradiation and BrdU immediately after and analyzes performed within the 4 hr following irradiation. This protocol provides an accurate analysis of the acute DNA damage response of NSPC in function of the phase of the cell cycle at which they have been irradiated. This method is easily transposable to many other systems in order to determine the impact of a particular treatment on cell cycle progression in living tissues.

引言

During embryonic brain development, projection neurons of the cerebral cortex are generated in the ventricular zone, a pseudostratified epithelium composed of different types of neural stem and progenitor cells (NSPC) that lines the lateral ventricles. Among NSPC, the radial glial cells (RGC), which serve as neural stem cells, undergo interkinetic nuclear migration (INM): they perform mitosis at the surface of the ventricle and S-phase at the basal limit of the ventricular zone (VZ)^1,2,3. They can divide either symmetrically to generate two RGC or asymmetrically to generate one RGC and one neuron or an intermediate progenitor cell (IPC)^4,5. IPC migrate to an overlying proliferating layer called the subventricular zone (SVZ), where after one last symmetric division they generate two immature projection neurons^6-8. Contrary to RGC, IPC do not undergo INM (reviewed in ⁹). Newly generated neurons migrate radially along the radial fibers through the intermediate zone (IZ) to reach their final destination in the cortical plate (CP)^10,8. The perfect timing of all these events is essential for a correct cortical development. For instance the switch from proliferation to differentiation of neural progenitor populations is controlled by the G1 phase duration^11,12. The lengthening of the G1 phase correlates thus with cell differentiation.

Genotoxic stress, such as ionizing radiation, severely impair brain development (reviewed in ¹³). We and others have shown that NSPC are highly prone to radiation-induced apoptosis^14,15,16. Ionizing radiations induce DNA double strand breaks that are the most severe damage to proliferating cells. One essential component of DNA Damage Response (DDR) in cycling cells is the activation of cell cycle checkpoints at the G1/S or G2/M transitions or during S phase (intra-S checkpoint)^17-21. They block the cell cycle progression to provide time for DNA damage repair or elimination of too damaged cells. Consequently, cell death as well as delayed cell cycle progression may alter brain development in response to ionizing radiation exposure^22-24. It was thus interesting to develop a method to assess the activation of cell cycle checkpoints in NSPC in the irradiated mouse embryonic brain.

The progression of the cell cycle is routinely followed using the incorporation of a thymidine analog, 5-Bromo-2’-deoxyUridine (BrdU). BrdU is incorporated during the S phase of the cell cycle, when DNA is replicating. The use of an antibody against BrdU allows thereafter the detection of cells that were in S phase during the pulse of BrdU.

A novel thymidine analog, 5-Ethynyl-2’-deoxyUridine (EdU) is detected by a fluorescent azide. The different ways to detect EdU and BrdU do not cross-react²⁵, enabling the simultaneous detection of both thymidine analogs, which is useful for the study of cell cycle progression. Usually cells are first pulsed with EdU and then pulsed with BrdU, where the time between both incorporations lasts couple of hours^25,26. Addition of BrdU in culture media containing EdU results in preferentially incorporation of BrdU into the DNA with the exclusion of EdU, while simultaneous addition of EdU²⁵ with equimolar or half equimolar BrdU to the media results in only BrdU incorporation²⁷. This simplifies the dual labeling protocol by eliminating the wash steps that are normally required to remove the first label from the culture media prior to addition of the second label. This also is of a particular interest for in vivo study, where the washing steps are not possible, to determine the precise timing of S phase entry or exit of cell population.

Recently, a method of dual-pulse labeling in embryonic mouse brain using EdU and BrdU^23,24,22 has been developed to analyze cell cycle progression and INM of NSPC after in utero irradiation. Moreover it has been demonstrated that, during S phase, mouse cells replicate first the euchromatin regions and then the pericentric heterochromatin^28,29,30. Interestingly, pericentric heterochromatin of different chromosomes clustered in interphasic nuclei to form heterochromatic foci also known as chromocenters and easily detectable by DAPI staining as bright foci. Therefore, the differential EdU and BrdU stainings of euchromatin and chromocenters helped us to analyze more precisely S phase progression of NSPC.

This method allowed the demonstration of the apparent lack of G1/S checkpoint in NSCP^22-24, which is quite surprising since this checkpoint is supposed to be critical for genome stability.  Several experimental designs based on various combinations of EdU and BrdU pulses have been used to analyze cell cycle progression in the ventral and dorsal telencephalon. Here, we give an example of protocols allowing the study of the acute DNA damage of NSPC within the first 4 hr following in utero irradiation of E14.5 mouse embryos.

方案

1. Animal Procedures

This protocol has been designed in compliance with the European Communities Council Directive of November 24, 1986 (86/609/EEC) and has been approved by our institutional committee on animal welfare (CETEA-CEA DSV IdF).

1. Injections with EdU/BrdU and irradiation of E14.5 pregnant mice (Figure 2A).
   1. Prepare a solution of EdU at 1 mg/ml and BrdU at 5 mg/ml in PBS. Perform an intra-peritoneal injection (IP) of 100 µl of EdU solution using a 25 G needle into pregnant mice. 1.5 hr later, irradiate the mice (total body irradiation) at 0 Gy or 2 Gy (0.6 Gy/min). Immediately after, inject (IP) 200 µl of BrdU solution using a 25 G needle into the pregnant mice.
2. Preparation of coronal slices of embryonic brains.
   1. At 1 hr or 4 hr after irradiation, euthanize the pregnant mice by carbon dioxide.
   2. Open the abdominal cavity over three centimeters using scissors. Separate the two uterine horns from the rest of the uterus by sectioning both extremities of the horns. Transfer the uterine horns into a Petri dish containing PBS 0.6% glucose. Open the uterine horns with the forceps in order to isolate the embryos. Remove the amniotic sac of each embryo using forceps.
   3. Dissect embryonic heads with forceps and fix them by immersion in 4% paraformaldehyde (PFA, pH=7.4) O/N at 4 °C.
   4. Rinse embryonic heads in PBS for at least one night at 4 °C. Heads can be kept in PBS for several days.
   5. Embed heads in paraffin using a vacuum infiltration processor as indicated in Table 1. Heads embedding can also be performed under a chemical hood for ethanol and xylen baths, and then in a 65 °C oven for the paraffin baths.
   6. Prepare 5-µm thick coronal sections with a microtome.
   7. Mount onto polylysine-coated microscope slides.
   8. Slides can be kept at room temperature (RT) for several months.

2. EdU/BrdU Staining

1. Deparaffinization and antigen unmasking
   1. Deparaffinize the paraffin-embedded brain sections by immersion of slides in 3 baths of toluene for 5 min.
   2. Rehydrate for 3 min in 2 baths of each solutions of decreasing ethanol concentration as following: ethanol 100%, ethanol 95%, ethanol 70%, and 5 min in H₂O. Slides can be kept in deionized water for several hr.
   3. Boil the slices for 10 min in citrate solution (10 mM, pH 6), and then incubate in deionized water for 5 min.
2. EdU staining
   1. Perform EdU detection according to the manufacturer’s protocol. Permeabilize cells with 0.5% triton X-100 in PBS for 10min.
   2. Prepare 1X EdU buffer additive by diluting the 10X solution in deionized water. This solution should be freshly made and used on the same day.
   3. Prepare EdU reaction cocktail, including EdU Alexa Fluor 488 azide. It is important to add the ingredients following the order listed in Table 2, otherwise, the reaction will not proceed optimally. Use the EdU reaction cocktail within 15 min of preparation.
   4. Remove the permeabilization buffer (step 2.1.1), then wash twice with PBS.
   5. Add 150 µl of EdU reaction cocktail, put a coverslip, and incubate for 30 min in the dark at RT.
   6. Remove the EdU reaction cocktail, then wash once with PBS.
3. BrdU staining
   1. Prepare saturation buffer with 7.5% goat serum and 7.5% fetal bovine serum in PBS. Add 150 µl of saturation buffer on brain slices, put a coverslip, and incubate for 1 hr at RT to block non-specific antibody binding.
   2. Remove the coverslip. Add 150 µl of mouse anti-BrdU primary antibody diluted at 1/300 in saturation buffer, put a coverslip and incubate O/N at 4 °C.
   3. Remove the coverslip, then wash 3 times in PBS.
   4. Add 150 µl of goat anti-mouse-Alexa594 secondary antibody diluted at 1/400 in saturation buffer, put a coverslip, and incubate for 1 hr at RT.
   5. Remove the coverslip, then wash once in PBS.
   6. Nuclear staining: add 150 µl of 4’,6-diamidino-2-phenylindole (DAPI) at 1 µg/ml in PBS, put a coverslip and incubate for 2 min at RT.
   7. Mount slides in mounting medium.

3. Analysis

1. Examine brain sections under a fluorescence microscope with a 20X objective or a confocal microscope and acquire images in three channels (488 nm, 594 nm and UV) as separates files.
2. Stack images with Photoshop software.
3. Analyze brain sections in a standard sector of the dorsomedial cerebral wall. This sector is 100 µm in its medial-lateral dimension and is divided into 18 bins (or more) of 10 µm height in its radial dimension using a grid superposed on images (Figure 1) as previously described³¹.
   1. Align the grid such as the first bin is at the ventricular surface, with its long axis parallel to the ventricular border. Then number the labeled EdU, BrdU and/or pyknotic nuclei (corresponding to apoptotic nuclei) in each bin. Number a nucleus located on the boundary of two bins in the bin which contains its larger part, or in the lower bin, when the nucleus occupies equal areas within the two bins.
4. Statistical analysis.

Analyze at least two cortical slices per embryo. Repeat experiments on at least 3 embryos from different litters. Results should be given as mean ± standard error of the mean (SEM). Statistical analyses are conducted with Graphpad Prism using two-way ANOVA and Bonferroni multiple comparison posthoc tests.

结果

In the experiment described in Figure 2, EdU was administered 1.5 hr before irradiation and BrdU just after irradiation. Four types of cells were then distinguished in the cortical slices prepared at 1 or 4 hr post-irradiation, according to the incorporation of either EdU or BrdU, both or none (Figures 2A and 2B). Importantly, neither EdU nor BrdU incorporation changed the level of radiation-induced apoptosis (data not shown). Moreover, the staining methods allow only th...

讨论

The experimental design described here based on incorporation of EdU 1.5 hr before irradiation and incorporation of BrdU immediately after irradiation allowed the demonstration that NSPCs are able to activate S and G2/M checkpoints but not the G1/S checkpoint during the 1^st hr after a genotoxic stress in the fetal mouse brain. We performed other experiments in which EdU has been injected at different times after irradiation and BrdU, just 1 hr before mice sacrifices, allowing us to specifically appreciate the ...

材料

本文使用的材料清单

姓名	公司	目录编号	评论
EdU	Life Technologies	A10044	1 毫克/毫升
BrdU	Life Technologies	B5002	5 毫克/毫升
IBL 637	CIS BIO 国际
Tissu Tek VIP	徕卡
切片机	Leica	RM 2125 RT
Triton X-100	Sigma-Aldrich	93443
Click-iT EdU Alexa 488成像套件	Life Technologies	C10083
抗BrdU	GE医疗保健	RPN202	1/300
山羊抗小鼠-Alex594	Life Technologies	A11001	1/400
Fluoromount	SouthernBiotech	0100-01
聚磷酸玻片	Thermo Scientific	J2800AMNZ
多聚甲醛	Sigma-Aldrich	P6148
PBS	Life Technologies	20012-068
DAPI	Sigma-Aldrich	D9542
显微镜 BX51	奥林巴斯
共聚焦显微镜 SPE	徕卡
棱镜软件	Graphpad		版本 5.0c
Photoshop 软件	Adobe