方法文章

从二维(2D)单层培养到三维(3D)多细胞共培养:构建适用于多种应用的皮肤模型

DOI:

10.3791/65773

2023年10月20日

* These authors contributed equally

本文内容

摘要

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本文介绍了一些成本低廉且操作简便的方法,可在细胞培养实验室中常规建立多种3D皮肤模型。研究人员可根据自身需求自行构建模型,而无需依赖 commercially available(商业化的)模型。

摘要

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由于皮肤具有复杂的结构和重要的功能,因此成为化妆品、制药和医疗行业一个引人关注的研究模型。在欧盟,已全面禁止对化妆品及其成分进行动物试验。对于药品和制药领域,此类试验的可能性也受到持续限制。根据“3R”原则,对人工构建的模型进行单个化合物乃至完整配方的测试正变得越来越普遍。其中成本最低且应用最广泛的是二维模型,它由单层细胞构成,但无法反映组织中细胞之间的真实相互作用。尽管市面上可获得的三维模型能更真实地模拟组织结构,但其大规模应用仍受限,原因在于价格昂贵、等待时间较长,且现有模型通常仅限于少数常规类型。

为了将已开展的研究提升到更高水平,我们优化了多种3D皮肤模型制备的实验流程。所述方法成本低廉且制备简便,可适用于众多实验室以及具有不同细胞培养经验的研究人员。

引言

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皮肤是一个具有多细胞相互作用的连续结构,体现了这一复杂器官的正常功能与稳态。皮肤由形态不同的层次构成:内层为真皮,外层为表皮。在表皮的最上方,还额外区分出角质层(由扁平的死亡细胞——角质细胞组成),其对外界环境提供最强的保护作用。皮肤的一些最重要被动与主动功能包括:抵御外界因素对身体的侵害、参与免疫学过程、分泌、吸收、体温调节以及感觉功能1,2,3。由于皮肤被认为是人体最大的器官之一,不可避免地会接触各种病原体、过敏原、化学物质以及紫外线(UV)辐射。因此,皮肤中含有多种具有特定功能的细胞。表皮中的主要细胞类型包括角质形成细胞(占所有细胞近90%,在表皮深层具有结构和免疫功能,随后经历角化过程,最终转化为表皮最上层的角质细胞)、黑色素细胞(仅占表皮细胞群体的3%–7%,可产生防护紫外线的色素黑色素)以及朗格汉斯细胞(属于免疫系统)。在真皮中,主要细胞为成纤维细胞(分泌生长因子和蛋白质)、树突状细胞和肥大细胞(后两者均属于免疫系统)4,5,6。此外,皮肤还含有多种细胞外蛋白(如I型和IV型胶原蛋白、纤连蛋白和层粘连蛋白;图1)以及蛋白纤维(胶原蛋白和弹性蛋白),这些成分不仅维持皮肤的特定结构,还促进细胞结合、细胞黏附及其他相互作用7

显示表皮、真皮、皮下组织的皮肤层示意图;标注了细胞类型和细胞外基质蛋白。
图1:皮肤结构示意图。 该图标注了皮肤各层中存在的四种基本细胞类型以及细胞外基质中的不同蛋白质。本图使用 Microsoft PowerPoint 制作。请点击此处查看此图的放大版本。

化妆品和药品的安全性是一个非常重要的问题,保护消费者和患者的健康是首要任务8。直到最近,这种安全性被认为可通过大量测试来保障,其中包括在动物身上进行的研究。然而,这些测试往往需要采用极端方法,导致用于研究目的的动物(通常是小鼠、大鼠和猪)遭受痛苦和折磨。1959年,提出了《人道实验技术原则》(3R原则):(1-替代)使用in vitroin silicoex vivo模型替代动物实验;(2-减少)减少用于研究的动物数量;(3-优化)改善仍需用于研究的动物的福利,同时改进所开发的替代方法9。此外,在欧盟(EU),动物化妆品测试受到法律监管。自2004年9月11日起,禁止销售经动物测试的化妆品。2009年3月11日,欧盟禁止对化妆品原料进行动物测试。禁止销售由新近经动物测试的原料制成的化妆品;然而,针对重复剂量毒性、生殖毒性和毒代动力学等复杂人类健康问题,仍允许在动物身上进行产品测试。自2013年3月11日起,在欧盟范围内,销售成品或其成分经过动物测试的化妆品属于违法行为10。因此,目前在美容领域,研究在三个层面上进行:in vitro(细胞)、ex vivo(真实组织)和in vivo(志愿者)11。对于药品而言,动物测试的需求仍然存在;但其使用已大幅减少并受到严格控制12

作为动物实验的替代方法以及对新型活性成分有效性进行初步评估的方法, 体外 皮肤细胞培养被用于研究。在无菌实验室条件下分离不同类型的皮肤细胞并进行培养,可评估活性物质的安全性和毒性。皮肤细胞系也被广泛认可为研究模型,因为这些细胞由认证公司提供,实验结果可在不同实验室之间进行比较。这些实验通常在简单的人体皮肤细胞单层二维模型上进行。一些更先进的模型包括共培养体系(如角质形成细胞与成纤维细胞、角质形成细胞与黑色素细胞的共培养),以及三维模型,包括无支架培养(如球状体)和基于支架的表皮、真皮甚至全层皮肤替代物模型。13值得一提的是,除最后一类(皮肤等效物)外,其余类型均未商业化供应,若需使用,科学家必须自行制备。

尽管如今已有大量此类模型被保留下来并 routinely 出售(表1),为了验证大多数研究结果,人们不断需要更多的模型。因此,新构建的模型应能更好地模拟人体内真实发生的相互作用。当使用多种不同类型细胞的混合物来构建此类模型时,便可再现组织的多细胞特性 体内 可以实现。结果,建立了器官型培养(图2).

名称描述
正常皮肤EpiSkin重建人表皮——角质形成细胞生长于胶原膜上
SkinEthic RHE重建人表皮——角质形成细胞生长于聚碳酸酯膜上
SkinEthic RHE-LC含朗格汉斯细胞的人表皮模型——角质形成细胞与朗格汉斯细胞生长于聚碳酸酯膜上
SkinEthic RHPE重建人色素表皮——角质形成细胞与黑素细胞生长于聚碳酸酯膜上
T-Skin重建人全层皮肤模型——角质形成细胞生长于成纤维细胞层上,成纤维细胞培养于聚碳酸酯膜上
Phenion FT 皮肤模型角质形成细胞与成纤维细胞共培养于水凝胶中
病变皮肤黑色素瘤全层皮肤模型正常人源性角质形成细胞与成纤维细胞,联合人恶性黑色素瘤细胞系 A375
银屑病组织模型正常人角质形成细胞与成纤维细胞

表1:用于各类研究的最受欢迎的商用皮肤等效物。

Hierarchical biological model diagram; complexity vs. imitation in cell culture methods.
图2:不同复杂性 体外 模型 不同复杂性之间的关系 体外 利用模型重建生物体以及在人体内直接发生的实际相互作用。该图改编自Servier公司提供的“微生物学与细胞培养”系列(Servier Medical Art,https://smart.servier.com/)。 请点击此处查看此图的放大版本。

商业等效模型最重要的局限性之一是仅提供非常通用的研究模型,且细胞种类很少(通常为1-2种,极少达到3种)。然而,皮肤中实际存在的细胞类型远多于此,这些细胞之间的相互作用可能显著影响各种成分的耐受性14。某些免疫组分的缺失会降低其在多种研究(包括免疫治疗研究)中的应用价值。这是一个严重的问题,因为黑色素瘤是一种危及生命的皮肤癌,其特点为早期发生转移以及对治疗方案频繁产生耐药性15。为了改进人工皮肤模型,研究人员正尝试建立免疫细胞与细胞系及类器官的共培养体系16,这被认为是所研究模型的重大进步。例如,肥大细胞参与皮肤中的多种生理过程(如伤口愈合、组织重塑)和病理过程(如炎症、血管生成及肿瘤进展)17。因此,在模型中引入这类细胞可显著改变模型对研究化合物的反应。最后,目前仍缺乏大量与皮肤相关的基础信息,这些信息只能通过基础研究来揭示。正因如此,构建和优化不同类型的人工皮肤模型(表2)成为一项极为重要的科研工作。本文介绍了几种构建先进皮肤模型的方法,包括球状体和皮肤等效物的制备。

体外皮肤模型尝试重建组织中发生的相互作用所用细胞示例
二维或三维细胞培养表皮角质形成细胞
黑色素细胞
角质形成细胞 + 黑色素细胞
真皮成纤维细胞
肥大细胞
成纤维细胞 + 肥大细胞
皮肤角质形成细胞 + 成纤维细胞
角质形成细胞 + 肥大细胞
黑色素细胞 + 成纤维细胞
黑色素细胞 + 肥大细胞
角质形成细胞 + 成纤维细胞 + 黑色素细胞
角质形成细胞 + 成纤维细胞 + 肥大细胞

表2:在二维和三维培养中重建皮肤组织的细胞类型混合示例。

方案

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本研究遵循赫尔辛基宣言的指导原则,并获得华沙医科大学伦理委员会(KB/7/2022)的批准。所有参与研究的受试者均签署了知情同意书。

注意:高级皮肤模型制备所描述的实验步骤可使用市售的原代皮肤细胞和细胞系,也可使用从患者体内分离的原代细胞进行。商业来源的细胞通常附有相关文件资料,且在大多数国家将其用于科研无需额外审批。然而,部分国家对此有强制性规定,因此必须查阅当地伦理委员会的相关法规。若研究中需使用从患者体内分离的原代细胞,则必须首先获得当地伦理委员会的批准,并严格遵循其指导原则开展研究。此外,必须从所有皮肤组织捐献者处获取书面的知情同意书。本文未涉及原代皮肤细胞的分离方法,但可参考Kosten等(角质形成细胞)18、Ścieżyńska等(黑色素细胞)19以及Kröger等(成纤维细胞和肥大细胞)20提供的典型分离流程。大多数正常皮肤细胞及细胞系属于生物安全等级BSL1级别,不会造成任何危害。然而,所使用的实验设备必须符合在受控条件下进行人和动物细胞培养的相应标准。

1. 皮肤细胞培养

注意:皮肤细胞培养必须在专用的培养瓶中进行,根据细胞类型选择用于贴壁细胞或悬浮细胞的培养瓶,在37 °C、5% 二氧化碳浓度的培养箱中培养。与细胞培养及用于研究相关的所有操作均需在无菌条件下进行,且应在超净工作台内经紫外线C(UVC)照射15-30分钟后操作。获得细胞悬液(后续用于构建二维和三维模型)需根据细胞类型采用不同的操作步骤(对于角质形成细胞、成纤维细胞和黑素细胞等贴壁细胞,参见步骤1.1;对于肥大细胞等非贴壁细胞,参见步骤1.2)(图3)。针对不同规格的培养瓶,本方法中所用各种试剂(如培养基、磷酸盐缓冲液或胰蛋白酶溶液)的体积详见表3。与细胞类型相关的各项参数(如试剂浓度与成分、离心方法等)列于表4。接种时所用的细胞密度见表5。所有这些表格均位于本节末尾。

细胞分离示意图;显示贴壁和非贴壁细胞分离过程的试管。
图3:贴壁与非贴壁细胞的培养。 贴壁和非贴壁细胞培养的通用逐步操作流程(数字对应步骤1.1和1.2的描述)。该图使用MS PowerPoint绘制。 请点击此处查看此图的放大版本。

  1. 获得贴壁细胞的悬浮液
    1. 从培养瓶中移除培养基。
    2. 用磷酸盐缓冲液(PBS,表3)轻轻洗涤细胞。
    3. 加入含乙二胺四乙酸的胰蛋白酶溶液(胰蛋白酶-EDTA溶液,表3)。将培养瓶置于37 °C孵育,并在光学显微镜下观察细胞从培养表面脱离的情况。
    4. 将脱离的细胞重悬于至少两倍体积的完全培养基或胰蛋白酶中和液中以灭活胰蛋白酶(比例为2:1)(体积参见表3,试剂参见表4)。将培养瓶中的内容物定量转移至15 mL离心管中。
    5. 取少量细胞悬液(20 µL)至1.5 mL离心管中,使用手动或自动细胞计数板进行细胞计数。
    6. 离心(参数见表4),弃去大部分上清液,将细胞沉淀重悬于少量残留液体中。随后,若细胞密度适合接种,则加入足量新鲜培养基以恢复至离心前体积(体积见表3);否则重新计算所需的新鲜培养基体积。
      注:某些细胞(如黑素细胞)对离心非常敏感,因此应避免在短时间内重复离心。
    7. 根据实验需求(皮肤细胞的二维/三维单培养或共培养),配制所需浓度的细胞悬液(细胞数/mL,细胞密度见表5)。
      注:若需继续培养细胞,将5,000–8,000个细胞/mL接种至新培养瓶中,并加入新鲜培养基(体积见表3)。
  2. 获得非贴壁细胞的悬浮液
    1. 将含有细胞悬液的培养基从培养瓶中取出,并定量转移至15 mL离心管中。
    2. 取少量细胞悬液(20 µL)转移至新的1.5 mL离心管中,使用手动或自动细胞计数板进行细胞计数。
    3. 离心(参数见表4),弃去大部分上清液,将细胞重悬于少量残留液体中。随后,若细胞密度适合接种,则加入新鲜培养基以恢复至离心前体积(见表3);否则重新计算所需的新鲜培养基体积。
    4. 根据实验需求(皮肤细胞的二维/三维单培养或共培养),配制所需浓度的细胞悬液(每毫升细胞数,建议值见表5)。
      注:若需继续培养细胞,将5,000–8,000个细胞/mL接种至新培养瓶中,并加入新鲜培养基。

    

25 cm2 培养瓶75 cm2 培养瓶
培养基 [mL]4–58–12
PBS [mL]510
胰蛋白酶–EDTA [mL]0.5–11–2
中和培养基 [mL]1–22–4

表3:细胞培养及细胞悬液制备过程中所用试剂的体积。

皮肤细胞单层培养胰蛋白酶胰蛋白酶失活剂离心二维单层培养培养基类型
角质形成细胞0.25%含胰蛋白酶中和剂300 × g,5 分钟,室温角质形成细胞生长培养基 2
成纤维细胞0.25%用培养基300 × g,5 分钟,室温DMEM,10% FBS
黑色素细胞0.025%含胰蛋白酶中和剂300 × g,3 分钟,室温Medium 254,无 PMA 人黑色素细胞生长添加剂-2
肥大细胞无需无需300 × g,3 分钟,室温IMDM,10% FBS,1% 非必需氨基酸,226 µM α-巯基甘油

表4:胰蛋白酶消化、离心参数以及培养基类型取决于细胞种类。

模型类型细胞密度 [cell/mL]
2D单层培养成纤维细胞2 x 105
肥大细胞
角质形成细胞
黑素细胞
3D球体(悬滴法)成纤维细胞5 x 105
肥大细胞
角质形成细胞
黑素细胞
混合细胞
球体(限制细胞黏附法)成纤维细胞2 x 105
肥大细胞
角质形成细胞
黑素细胞
混合细胞
等效模型成纤维细胞1 x 105
肥大细胞1 x 104
角质形成细胞8 x 105
黑素细胞5 x 104

表5:不同类型皮肤模型的细胞接种密度。

2. 皮肤细胞球的制备

注意:步骤 2.1(图 4)中描述了使用悬滴法形成球体的方法,而步骤 2.2(图 5)则展示了通过限制细胞黏附来形成球体的方法。然而,由于球体非常微小且容易不稳定,采用这些方法进行操作时需要耐心、细致和缓慢的动作。

  1. 悬滴法
    1. 使用适当的细胞密度以获得所需球体大小(推荐细胞密度为 5 × 105 个细胞/mL,表 5)。
    2. 用移液器将 20 µL 细胞悬液滴加到培养皿或多孔板的盖子上(图 4A)。
    3. 用培养皿/板的底部盖住,并轻轻翻转(悬滴将自动形成于盖子上,图 4B)。
    4. 在培养皿/板的孔中加入无菌水/PBS 溶液,以防止液滴中的培养基蒸发。
    5. 在 37 °C 下孵育 48–72 小时。
      注意:重力使细胞下沉,而缺乏可附着的表面可防止细胞贴壁,从而促进细胞聚集。然而,某些细胞类型可能需要更长的孵育时间。
    6. 在进行下一步操作前,向新板的孔中加入完全培养基(100 µL)(或使用旧板,但需先移除孔中的水/PBS)。
      注意:在下一步操作前,取 200 µL 吸头,剪去每根吸头末端的 1/5,并在使用前进行灭菌。
    7. 使用末端剪切过的无菌移液吸头将细胞球体转移至多孔板的孔中。取 200 µL 吸头,剪去每根吸头末端的 1/5,并在使用前灭菌(图 4C)。
      注意:此步骤可能较困难,因为在翻转培养皿/板时液体流动可能损伤球体。
    8. 将转移后的球体在多孔板中于 37 °C 下继续孵育 1 天,然后再进行后续实验(例如添加化合物、细胞毒性检测、将球体引入类器官模型等)(图 4D)。
  2. 限制细胞贴壁法
    1. 在接种细胞前,用表面活性剂溶液(例如 Pluronic F-127、聚乙二醇、聚乙烯醇)覆盖 U 型底板的孔21。配制 PBS 中含 1% 表面活性剂的溶液,每孔加入 100 µL。将板与溶液在 37 °C 下孵育 24 小时(图 5A-C)。如需长期保存,可继续储存,但需通过添加更多 PBS 缓冲液维持液面高度。
    2. 将细胞悬液按每孔 50 µL 的体积、所需细胞密度进行制备(推荐接种密度为 2 × 105/mL,表 5)。
    3. 在接种细胞前,移除孔中的表面活性剂溶液,以避免细胞膜因裂解而受损(图 5D)。
    4. 将细胞悬液加入板中,在 37 °C 下孵育 24 小时以形成细胞聚集体(图 5E)。大约 1–3 天后,球体将形成(图 5F),并可用于后续实验。

48小时内使用移液步骤进行取样和培养的细胞培养流程图。
图4:悬滴法。A)将细胞悬液移液至培养皿盖上,并用培养皿底部盖住皿盖;(B)翻转培养皿以形成悬滴;(C)向培养皿底部加入水或PBS(以限制液体蒸发);(D)培养含有悬滴的培养皿以形成细胞球;(E)收集含有已形成球体的液滴,并将转移后的球体在多孔板中进行稳定培养。该图由Biorender.com制作。请点击此处查看此图的放大版本。

顺序扩散示意图,展示用于蛋白质纯化分析的凝胶扩散步骤。
图 5:通过限制性细胞黏附法逐步制备细胞球A)U型底孔;(BC)通过表面活性剂溶液限制细胞黏附;(D)从孔中移除溶液;(E)接种细胞;(F)细胞聚集并形成细胞球。该图由 Biorender.com 制作。请点击此处查看此图的放大版本。

3. 全层皮肤等效物的制备

注意:全层(表皮和真皮)皮肤等效物的构建可分为三个步骤(图6):首先制备含典型真皮细胞(如成纤维细胞和肥大细胞,图6A)的人工真皮层,随后将包含在人工表皮中的细胞(主要是角质形成细胞和黑色素细胞,图6B)接种,最后实现角质形成细胞的垂直生长及可能的角化过程(形成角质层,图6C)。全层皮肤等效物的制备详见步骤3.1(3.1.1–3.1.10)。若需要较简单的皮肤等效物(例如仅表皮类型),可将选定的细胞类型(如角质形成细胞)直接接种于 commercially available 胶原膜或聚碳酸酯膜上,并进行培养,也可诱导其发生角化过程(直接进入步骤3.1.9–3.1.10)。

静态平衡过程示意图、液体扩散、烧杯装置、逐步分析步骤。
图6:在插入物中逐步制备全厚度皮肤等效物。A)含有真皮细胞的伪真皮层制备,(B)表皮细胞接种,(C)在培养基中进一步培养等效物,(D)气-液界面培养促进分层上皮的形成。该图由Biorender.com制作。请点击此处查看此图的放大版本。

  1. 在24孔板中制备全层皮肤等效物
    1. 将装有水、PBS(10倍浓度)、1 M NaOH 和 I 型胶原蛋白溶液的试管置于冰上。
    2. 确定适宜数量的真皮细胞(如成纤维细胞和肥大细胞,比例为10:1)接种于水凝胶中。根据细胞密度,将适量的真皮细胞转移至1.5 mL离心管中(成纤维细胞500 µL,肥大细胞500 µL) 表5) 并离心细胞(300 × g) g,3分钟,室温。
    3. 去除上清液,将细胞轻轻重悬于 695 µL 水/100 µL PBS(10x)/5 µL NaOH 的混合液中。
      注意:如果总体积1 mL不足,可使用 表6 重新计算每种试剂的体积。
    4. 加入200 µL胶原蛋白溶液至混合物中,用移液器轻轻混匀。
      注意:混合物的质地会较稠密,请小心操作。
    5. 向24孔板中的插入物加入200 µL制备好的混合液。用于无角质层的模型, 向24孔板的每个孔中加入500 µL。
    6. 将培养板在室温(RT)孵育10分钟,然后转移至培养箱中孵育30分钟。
      注意:在进行任何其他操作前,需检查水凝胶是否已聚合。
    7. 在将细胞接种到水凝胶表面之前,用 PBS 缓冲液(500 µL/孔)冲洗表面。
    8. 确定接种在水凝胶表面的表皮细胞(如角质形成细胞和黑色素细胞,比例为15:1)的合适数量。用500 µL添加10%胎牛血清的DMEM培养基制备细胞混合液(加入250 µL角质形成细胞和250 µL黑色素细胞,细胞密度见原文) 表4)并轻轻加入孔板中。
      注意:在某些情况下,建议先接种黑素细胞,使其在水凝胶上充分铺展,再过24小时后更换培养基并接种角质形成细胞。在此情况下,加入250 µL细胞悬液和250 µL培养基。
    9. 将培养板置于37 °C培养2-5天,具体时间取决于细胞生长速度,每48小时更换一次培养基(胎牛血清浓度从10%逐渐降低至1%),并在光学显微镜下监测细胞状态。
    10. 如果需要在水凝胶表面的角质形成细胞形成单层后诱导角化过程,则使用不含FBS、额外添加钙离子和L-抗坏血酸的培养基继续培养2-7周(CaCl₂浓度为1.5 µM)2 和 50 µg/mL L-抗坏血酸)。
      注意:孵育时间取决于所使用的角质形成细胞及其分化速度。
试剂计算试剂体积的公式示例计算
(最终体积 Vtotal = 1 mL)
I型胶原溶液胶原体积计算公式示意图,V_collagen,用于浓度和总体积计算。(Ccollagen = 10 mg/mL)
0.2 mL = 200 μL
PBS (10x)稀释计算公式,V_PBS(10x)(mL) = V_total(mL)/10,涉及PBS配制。0.1 mL = 100 μL
1 M NaOH胶原分析实验中NaOH体积计算公式。0.005 mL = 5 μL
无菌 H2O胶原制备中水体积的计算公式;包含总体积和试剂变量。0.695 mL = 695 μL

表6:制备2 mg/mL I型胶原水凝胶所需试剂体积的计算。

4. 通过细胞染色方法鉴定三维皮肤模型中的细胞类型

注意:为了确认所构建的皮肤模型包含预期的细胞类型,建议进行细胞染色。这是在特定模型上开展任何靶向实验前的关键步骤22。对于三维皮肤模型,必须先将模型包埋于石蜡中,并使用切片机将人工组织切成薄片以制备显微镜载玻片(步骤4.1),然后进行细胞染色(图7)。

组织处理流程;切片机切割;组织学切片;显微镜分析示意图。
图7:三维皮肤模型包埋、细胞染色及显微观察的基本步骤。 该图由Biorender.com制作。 请点击此处查看此图的放大版本。

  1. 3D皮肤模型的包埋
    1. 在室温下用PBS清洗皮肤等效物两次,每次5分钟,并使用含3.7%多聚甲醛的PBS溶液固定(30分钟,室温)。重复用PBS清洗步骤。
    2. 包埋前,通过将皮肤等效物依次置于浓度递增的乙醇溶液中进行脱水处理:50%(15分钟)、70%(15分钟)、96%(2次,每次30分钟)和99.8%(2次,每次30分钟)。
    3. 将固定并脱水后的皮肤等效物放入盛有石蜡的模具中。
      注:请将等效物放置于适当的方向。
    4. 用包埋盒盖住模具,并在上方添加更多石蜡。在室温下静置至多30分钟使其凝固。
    5. 将石蜡包埋的皮肤等效物在-80 °C下冷冻至少1小时。
    6. 打开切片机,插入石蜡包埋的皮肤等效物,切取5 µm厚的切片。将切下的类组织切片置于载玻片上,并在37 °C下干燥至少8小时。
    7. 将载玻片浸入二甲苯中(2次,每次10分钟),然后用浓度递减的乙醇溶液重新水化载玻片:99.8%(5分钟)、96%(5分钟)、70%(5分钟)和50%(5分钟)。
    8. 从乙醇溶液中取出载玻片,用蒸馏水冲洗两次(每次5分钟)。
      注:传统的细胞染色可通过应用特异性染料(苏木精、伊红23)或使用选择性靶向生物标志物的抗体进行(包括成纤维细胞的胶原蛋白1A2、角质形成细胞的角蛋白14、黑色素细胞的Melan-A或酪氨酸酶24)。常规的苏木精-伊红染色可依据不同公司提供的方案进行(步骤4.2)。另一方面,若需进行免疫荧光或免疫组织化学染色,则流程不同且耗时更长(步骤4.3和4.4)。为避免非特异性反应,应使用来自不同物种的一抗,随后使用相应的二抗。
  2. 3D皮肤模型的苏木精-伊红染色
    1. 在室温下用苏木精溶液对载玻片染色3分钟。
    2. 用酸性乙醇溶液洗涤载玻片1分钟。
      注:通过将2 mL 35%-38%盐酸与98 mL 99.8%乙醇混合配制酸性乙醇溶液。
    3. 接着,用0.1%碳酸氢钠溶液洗涤载玻片,以获得清晰的淡蓝紫色。
      注:将100 mg碳酸氢钠溶解于100 mL超纯水中,即可配制0.1%碳酸氢钠溶液。
    4. 用95%乙醇洗涤载玻片1分钟。
    5. 在室温下用伊红溶液对载玻片染色1分钟。
    6. 用95%乙醇洗涤载玻片1分钟,再用99.8%乙醇洗涤2分钟。
    7. 用二甲苯洗涤载玻片,每次2分钟,共两次。
    8. 用树胶封片,在载玻片上加盖盖玻片。样品即可用于显微镜观察。
  3. 3D皮肤模型的免疫荧光染色
    1. 用PBS冲洗载玻片(5分钟)。
    2. 配制封闭液(含3%牛血清白蛋白[BSA]或脱脂奶粉的PBS缓冲液,并加入0.1% Triton X-100和0.1% Tween 20),将载玻片在其中孵育1小时(室温)。
    3. 用PBS缓冲液洗涤载玻片两次(每次5分钟)。
    4. 根据生产商推荐条件(表7),将一抗用PBS缓冲液稀释,并将载玻片在其中孵育1-2小时(室温)或过夜(4 °C)。
    5. 用PBS缓冲液洗涤载玻片两次(每次5分钟)。
    6. 根据生产商推荐条件(表7),将二抗用PBS缓冲液稀释,并将载玻片在其中孵育1小时(室温)。
    7. 用PBS洗涤载玻片两次(每次5分钟)。
    8. 配制细胞核染色染料溶液(如Hoechst 33342或DAPI,表7),将载玻片在其中孵育最多15分钟(室温)。
    9. 用PBS洗涤载玻片(5分钟)。
    10. 用树胶封片,加盖盖玻片,并使用荧光显微镜观察细胞染色结果。
  4. 3D皮肤模型的免疫组织化学染色
    1. 执行步骤4.3.1–4.3.5。
    2. 额外使用与二抗偶联酶相匹配的缓冲液进行一次洗涤步骤。
    3. 根据生产商推荐条件,将二抗用与偶联酶相匹配的缓冲液稀释,并将载玻片在其中孵育1小时(室温)。
    4. 用PBS洗涤载玻片两次(每次5分钟)。
    5. 根据生产商推荐条件,配制适用于所用酶的合适底物溶液,并将载玻片在其中孵育。
    6. 用缓冲液洗涤载玻片(5分钟),然后用树胶封片。
    7. 使用明场显微镜观察细胞染色结果。
检测的细胞类型/细胞类器官染色剂稀释倍数 / 浓度
肥大细胞亲和素−磺基罗丹明 1011 μg/mL
成纤维细胞兔源 Col1A2 抗体1:50
FITC 标记的山羊抗兔二抗1:250
角质形成细胞鼠源细胞角蛋白 14 抗体1:50
FITC 标记的山羊抗鼠二抗1:250
黑色素细胞鼠源 Melan-A 抗体1:50
FITC 标记的山羊抗鼠二抗1:250
细胞核Hoechst 333421 μg/mL
DAPI1 μg/mL

表7:细胞染色所用试剂的浓度与稀释比例。

结果

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在开始于实验室构建皮肤模型之前,必须确定所用细胞的类型(原代细胞/细胞系)以及为这些细胞选择合适的培养基。大多数细胞库均推荐并可提供适用于各类细胞培养的培养基。对于共培养模型,需选择一种能够满足培养体系中所有细胞类型需求的培养基。下表汇总了常用于原代皮肤细胞培养及最常见皮肤细胞系的一些典型培养基。 表818,19,20,25,26,27原代细胞培养所用的典型培养基通常较为昂贵,且其成分复杂。相比之下,细胞系通常可满足于成分简单的培养基。某些细胞类型(主要是成纤维细胞和肥大细胞)能够产生并分泌促进其他细胞(如角质形成细胞和黑素细胞)生长的因子。28,29如果模型中已计划包含它们,则无需额外补充培养基。

细胞类型细胞名称培养基参考文献
角质形成细胞HaCaT 细胞系DMEM,10% FBS,100 U/mL 青霉素,100 μg/mL 链霉素根据供应商说明
原代正常人表皮角质形成细胞(NHEK)角质形成细胞生长培养基2(基础培养基 + 补充剂混合物)根据供应商说明
原代人表皮角质形成细胞;正常成人型(HEKa)真皮细胞基础培养基,0.4% 牛垂体提取物,0.5 ng/mL 重组人转化生长因子-α,6 mM L-谷氨酰胺,100 ng/mL 氢化可的松半琥珀酸酯,5 mg/mL 重组人胰岛素,1 mM 肾上腺素,5 mg/mL 去唾液酸转铁蛋白,100 U/mL 青霉素(如需要),100 μg/mL 链霉素(如需要)根据供应商说明
原代角质形成细胞DMEM/F-12(3:1),1% Ultroser G,1 µM 氢化可的松,1 µM 异丙肾上腺素,0.1 µM 胰岛素,1 ng/mL 角质形成细胞生长因子,1% 青霉素-链霉素18
黑色素细胞原代黑色素细胞Medium 254,无PMA人黑色素细胞生长补充剂-2,1% 抗生素溶液19
原代黑色素细胞RPMI-1640,10% FBS,14.7 μg/mL 酚红溶液,1% L-谷氨酰胺,1% 青霉素/链霉素27
HEMa-LP 细胞系Medium 254,5 µg/mL 重组人胰岛素,50 µg/mL 抗坏血酸,6 mM L-谷氨酰胺,1 µM 肾上腺素,1.5 mM 氯化钙,100 U/mL 青霉素(如需要),100 μg/mL 链霉素(如需要)根据供应商说明
原代正常人表皮黑色素细胞(NHEM)黑色素细胞生长培养基(基础培养基 + 补充剂混合物)根据供应商说明
成纤维细胞原代人Tenon囊成纤维细胞(HTFs)EMEM,5% FBS,5 ng/mL 重组人碱性成纤维细胞生长因子,5 μg/mL 重组人胰岛素,50 μg/mL 抗坏血酸,7 mM L-谷氨酰胺,100 U/mL 青霉素,100 μg/mL 链霉素,0.25 μg/mL 两性霉素B28
原代HTFs,以及DMEM,10% FBS,100 U/mL 青霉素,100 μg/mL 链霉素,0.25 μg/mL 两性霉素B20.28
原代人皮肤成纤维细胞
HFF-1 细胞系DMEM,15% FBS,100 U/mL 青霉素,100 μg/mL 链霉素根据供应商说明
BJ 细胞系EMEM,10% FBS,100 U/mL 青霉素,100 μg/mL 链霉素根据供应商说明
肥大细胞原代人皮肤肥大细胞(hsMCs)IMDM,10% FBS,1% 非必需氨基酸,226 µM α-单硫甘油,100 U/mL 青霉素,100 μg/mL 链霉素20
LAD2 细胞系StemPro-34,2.5% StemPro-34 营养补充剂,2 mM L-谷氨酰胺,100 ng/mL 重组人干细胞因子,100 U/mL 青霉素,100 μg/mL 链霉素29
HMC-1.1 和 1.2 细胞系IMDM,10% FBS,2 mM L-谷氨酰胺,25 mM HEPES,100 U/mL 青霉素,100 μg/mL 链霉素29

表8:培养原代皮肤细胞和细胞系最常用培养基概述。
说明:达尔伯克必需基础培养基(DMEM)、伊格尔必需基础培养基(EMEM)、胎牛血清(FBS)、汉姆F-12营养混合物(F12)、伊思科夫改良达尔伯克培养基(IMDM)、重组人源(rh)、罗斯韦尔帕克纪念研究所培养基(RPMI)。

本文使用角质形成细胞、黑色素细胞、成纤维细胞和肥大细胞等原代细胞构建了皮肤模型。这些原代细胞的培养条件比细胞系略为苛刻,其单细胞培养所推荐并使用的培养基分别为:添加补充剂的角质形成细胞生长培养基2(用于角质形成细胞)、添加补充剂的Medium 254(用于黑色素细胞)、添加补充剂的DMEM培养基(用于成纤维细胞)以及添加补充剂的IMDM培养基(用于肥大细胞)。在上述培养基中,各细胞均表现出与其细胞类型相对应的典型形态(代表性图像见图8)。在两种或多种细胞共培养的情况下,选择一种能够支持所有培养细胞类型生长的培养基至关重要。经过数次测试后,最终选用含10%胎牛血清(FBS)和1%抗生素混合液的DMEM培养基,用于构建更高级的三维球体模型和皮肤等效物。

表皮和真皮细胞示意图:角质形成细胞、黑色素细胞、成纤维细胞、肥大细胞的比较。
图8:二维单层培养过程中观察到的不同形态的皮肤细胞。 比例尺:100 µm。 请点击此处查看该图的放大版本。

球体(通常称为球状体)是细胞与组织工程研究人员开发的最简单的三维模型之一,尽管由皮肤细胞构建的球体并不十分常见。在此模型中,既可构建单细胞培养球体,也可构建多细胞共培养球体。文献中已报道了多种球体的制备方法(例如悬滴法、限制细胞贴壁法、磁悬浮法、旋转法、微流控技术等)30。由于前两种方法操作简便、成本低廉,且所需材料和设备易于获取,因此推荐三维(3D)细胞模型初学者采用,其具体操作方案见上文(步骤2.1和2.2)。根据文献31,32,这些方法中最关键的参数包括细胞数量、细胞悬液体积以及孵育时间。

类球体可由不同数量的细胞构建,但每种细胞类型以及共培养体系的接种细胞密度均需单独优化。对角质形成细胞和成纤维细胞单层培养的优化过程表明,接种 1 x 104 每孔细胞数对两种细胞类型均获得了最佳结果。所示的球状体 图9 使用U型底培养板限制细胞黏附的方法制备(步骤2.2)。建议至少制备4个孔的技术重复样本(最佳为6个孔)。由1 × 10组成的类球体4 细胞在孔中可见,因此更易于操作。因此,在检测过程中甚至可以在不移除类球体的情况下从孔中更换旧培养基。经过上述操作后,类球体的形态大多保持不变且可重复。较大类球体在操作过程中的稳定性较低。还值得注意的是,不同类型的细胞可形成不同颜色的类球体(例如., 角质形成细胞形成的球体颜色较深,而成纤维细胞形成的球体则明显较浅。

角质形成细胞和成纤维细胞生长比较;不同密度下细胞簇的显微镜图像。
图9:球体的形成。 利用限制性细胞黏附法,由不同类型和数量的皮肤细胞形成的球体。比例尺(上图):200 µm。比例尺(下图):100 µm。 请点击此处查看该图的放大版本。

如悬滴法(步骤2.1)中所述,球状体在某一阶段需要从培养皿盖转移至孔板中。此过程可能对球状体造成损伤,因此该步骤要求操作具有高度精确性。若操作不当,所形成的球状体容易失去正常形态(图10)。第一张图像(图10A)显示了一个各向均呈均匀圆形的良好球状体。第二和第三张图像(图10BC)中可见球状体出现轻微变形,但细胞聚集体仍保持圆形。最后三张图像(图10D-F)展示了球状体损伤的不同阶段。要获得形态和结构可重复的球状体,需要积累一定的操作经验。对于初次尝试构建球状体的研究人员,建议采用限制细胞黏附的方法(步骤2.2),因其结果更具可比性,且受操作者操作影响较小。

Microscopy image series of organoid development stages at 200 µm; cellular morphology change analysis.
图10:悬滴法中将类球体从盖子转移到孔板时可能遇到的困难 (A)一个良好的球体,(B,C) 轻微受损的球体,(D-F严重受损的类球体。图像拍摄于传代后24小时。比例尺:200 µm。 请点击此处以查看此图的放大版本。

皮肤等效物是比球体更为先进的三维人工皮肤模型。在构建皮肤模型的过程中,需要考虑多个方面,包括模型的层数(仅有表皮、仅有真皮、包含表皮和角质层的真皮)、所使用的细胞类型、应用的材料、理想的等效物尺寸、以及后续将用于何种类型的研究等14。皮肤等效物可置于特制的插入式培养插件中,这些插件可放入标准的多孔板中,孔板尺寸可根据需要选择(如96孔、48孔、24孔等)。尽管使用插件更便于在不同孔之间转移以及更换培养基时操作,且能避免损伤等效物,但其成本较高。如果模型无需包含角质层,则更经济的方案是在多孔板的孔内直接制备等效物。

人工真皮层通常采用基于支架的模型构建,使用天然(明胶、胶原蛋白、纤维蛋白、透明质酸、壳聚糖-海藻酸盐等)或合成(聚乙二醇二丙烯酸酯和聚乳酸)水凝胶33。为了模拟真实皮肤的真皮层,该层必须主要由水组成,并含有一定量的细胞外基质(ECM)成分(包括胶原蛋白或纤连蛋白),以介导细胞黏附、细胞间相互作用及其他细胞活动34。在本研究中,选择I型胶原蛋白,因其易于制备成水凝胶形式,且其结构具有良好的柔韧性,便于后续潜在的研究操作(例如将等效物从一个培养皿转移至另一个培养皿)。从大鼠尾部提取的I型胶原蛋白溶液通常通过将粉末溶于20 mM乙酸中制备而成。为实现胶原蛋白的聚合,需提供pH值在6.5–7.5范围内的适当条件。这可通过精确添加氢氧化钠来实现。为方便操作,一些公司已提供特定计算方法,有助于确定制备此类水凝胶所需的精确体积(表6)。尽管文献中报道的水凝胶中胶原蛋白浓度各不相同(例如,0.5–2 mg/mL35;5–30 mg/mL36;低和高胶原蛋白含量37),但在本描述的模型中,采用2 mg/mL的溶液,因其水凝胶仍具有足够的柔韧性,同时结构足够致密,必要时可从孔板中完整移出。

为了制备一种较为逼真的全层皮肤,应以尽可能接近人体内自然分布的比例接种相应的细胞。在表皮中,根据身体部位的不同,一个黑素细胞与其相关的一群角质形成细胞之间的比例约为1:36,这一结构被称为表皮黑素单元(Epidermal Melanin Unit, EMU)38。因此,在人工表皮中采用的比例为1个黑素细胞对应15个角质形成细胞(表5)。为了构建人工真皮层,使用了I型胶原蛋白水凝胶,并将成纤维细胞与肥大细胞以1个肥大细胞比10个成纤维细胞的比例包埋其中。通过倒置光学显微镜观察时,可实时监测所构建的每层等效皮肤结构,只需调节观察样本的焦平面深度即可(示例图像见图11)。

皮肤组织的显微镜图像;成纤维细胞、肥大细胞、角质形成细胞、黑色素细胞被标记。
图11:在构建的全层皮肤等效物特定层次中对不同类型细胞的实时观察。A)伪真皮层和(B)伪表皮层,通过明场显微镜成像显示。比例尺:50 µm。 请点击此处查看该图的放大版本。

通过染色检测等效模型,可以更准确地观察并确认是否获得了预期的模型结构。固定的等效组织需先包埋于石蜡中,随后用切片机进行切片。含有薄层人工皮肤组织的载玻片可使用多种染料染色,包括苏木精和伊红(医学实验室常规进行的基础染色)。通过该操作,可在等效组织中区分人工真皮与表皮,并识别单个皮肤细胞(图12)。在图12中,不仅展示了特定类型的细胞,还可观察到角质形成细胞处于细胞分裂过程的不同阶段(如末期和中期)。对于肥大细胞,其细胞内特异性颗粒清晰可辨。这些图像初步证实所构建的皮肤等效物具有活性(其中细胞正在生长),并且细胞能够在所建立的模型中正常发挥功能。然而,对于三维表皮及全层皮肤模型,尤其需要检测所获得结构的质量与功能特性。为评估角质层的通透性,应进行跨上皮电阻(Transepithelial Electrical Resistance, TEER)测量或 Lucifer-Yellow 染色39,40。此外,在结构合理的人工皮肤中,应存在一系列特异性标志物,包括分化标志物(如Filaggrin、Involucrin、Loricrin、Keratin 10、Keratin 5,以及包含神经酰胺的脂质类别)、真皮-表皮连接标志物(如IV型胶原、Laminin V、Alpha6Beta4-整合素、BP抗原)41、表皮层紧密连接标志物(如claudin-1、occludin、闭合小环蛋白(ZO)-1)42,以及基底层增殖标志物(Ki67)41

人工表皮和真皮显微图像;细胞分裂、角质形成细胞、成纤维细胞。
图12:皮肤细胞形态与功能。 全层皮肤等效物经苏木精和伊红染色后,观察皮肤细胞的形态与功能(细胞分裂现象)。比例尺:100 µm(上图)、50 µm(中图左)、100 µm(中图右)、50 µm(下图)。请点击此处查看该图的放大版本。

确认生物标志物存在的最常用方法是进行特异性染色,例如免疫组织化学或免疫荧光染色。可使用不同的抗体和荧光染料,在显微镜下可视化模型中的特定细胞。培养细胞染色的示例结果如图13所示。观察角质形成细胞时,使用了抗细胞角蛋白14的抗体;对于黑色素细胞,则使用了抗黑色素-A的特异性抗体。成纤维细胞通过抗胶原蛋白1A2抗体进行染色,而肥大细胞中存在的肝素则通过与亲和素偶联的荧光染料硫代罗丹明101进行检测。

荧光显微镜显示蛋白质表达,细胞用绿色和蓝色标记物标记,可见比例尺。
图13:荧光细胞染色结果。A)角质形成细胞中的细胞角蛋白14。比例尺:50 µm。(B)黑色素细胞中的Melan-A。比例尺:50 µm。(C)成纤维细胞中的胶原蛋白1A2。比例尺:100 µm。(D)肥大细胞中的肝素。比例尺:10 µm。请点击此处查看该图的放大版本。

讨论

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This article presents the methodology that can be applied to prepare one's own advanced artificial skin models. It is a good solution whenever the planned research needs strictly defined research models that may turn out to be unavailable on the market or very expensive. As mentioned earlier, several commercial skin equivalents are available on the market (e.g., EpiSkin, EpiDerm FT). However, their cost (€100-€400 per piece) and delivery time (a few days-weeks) may encourage the researcher to attempt to prepare such a model on their own. The proposed procedures are easy to perform even for inexperienced scientists, and at the same time, allow to obtain very advanced skin models. It is worth emphasizing that the decision on the cellular composition of a given model is fully dependent on the researcher. Apart from the created model, it can be further developed and improved, which opens up completely new research perspectives. In the case of commercial models, it is necessary to buy a different equivalent.

Although the 3D cell cultures may be advanced with multiple cell types, easy to handle and accessible, they are still just artificial models which cannot fully recreate the complexity and functionality of the tissue (e.g., immunological functions, vascularization). That is why, in most studies, several models are required to confirm the obtained results. Some advantages and disadvantages of these models were gathered in Table 9, as well as their limitations. On the other hand, commercial models guarantee high qualitative standards with reproducibility of experiments and comparability of data between the laboratories. To implement the use of a new compound for research, it will certainly be necessary to purchase the appropriate commercial equivalent. But at the preparatory stage, such a self-made 3D model of the skin (multicell type sphere or equivalent) can help to reduce the number of experiments needed to be carried out on a commercial equivalent. The goal of producing and using the described models is not to bypass the need to apply certified research models but to facilitate research and reduce related expenses.

Compared pair of modelsAdvantagesDisadvantages
cell culture vs. animalsMinimalized animal sufferingLimited information on the influence of a tested factor on the whole body
High experiment standardization - better reproducibility of the resultsA single model is not enough to reflect the processes occurring in the body
No side effects for the whole organism-
Better control over the conditions of the experiment-
Possibility of automatization (e.g., bioprinting)-
Lower costs-
The small size of the sample needed-
Limited amount of waste generated-
3D vs. 2D culturesBetter reflect the full organismTime-consuming culture
Possibility to create a functional tissueHigher costs
Possibility to create a model tailored to the needs of the carried researchSpontaneous formation of a 3D structure is almost not possible
-Lack of standardized tests to quantify the effects of various compounds
-Limited access to different 3D cultures available on the market
cell line vs. primary cellsCertificated and approved models Only a limited number of cell lines are available
High experiment standardization - better reproducibility of the resultsLimited possibility to obtain several types of cells from the same donor
Longer life spanMay possess changed properties from the native cells 
Rather quick proliferation rateFrequently disturbed functionality of cells
Less sensitive to several activities (e.g., freezing, centrifugation)-

Table 9: Comparison of the usage of different models in research - advantages vs. disadvantages

Several articles describe how to prepare 3D skin models (apart from review articles summarizing commercially available models14,43,44, they are usually focused on a single methodology to obtain spheres45 or equivalents46).

In this article, two methodologies were described for the sphere formation with skin cells. The hanging drop method is widely used, but its repeatability and stability may be insufficient in some cases. Most steps require specific actions, such as high-speed work due to the evaporation of water from droplets during transfer. Gentle movements are also recommended, as lack of such a skill may result in cell aggregate damage31,32. Thus, an easier method for sphere preparation is focused on limiting cell adhesion. The absence of a good surface for cell attachment promotes higher interactions between cells. As a consequence, cell aggregates are generated. Its repeatability is much higher as there is no necessity for sphere transferring. With these methods, the optimal number of skin cells to create a sphere was established at 1 x 104 cells/sphere.

Next, procedures describing the preparation of skin equivalents were shown. Their appearance and functionality in research may strongly depend on the elements from which they are constructed, including cells (Table 2), scaffolds and media. The 3D scaffolds used for the preparation of artificial skin can be divided into synthetic hydrogels and those formed from natural sources. Depending on the used material and its properties to compose the hydrogel, the necessity to additionally supplement the medium may occur. Synthetic hydrogels require incorporating bioactive molecules (proteins, enzymes, and growth factors) into the synthetic hydrogel network to mediate specific cell functions47. The main approaches presented in the literature for achieving controlled delivery of growth factors to hydrogels include direct loading, electrostatic interaction, covalent binding, and the use of carriers48. Hydrogels formed from natural sources such as ECM proteins and polymers can generate fluid pathways throughout the 3D scaffold, accelerating the distribution of nutrients; thus, there is no need for additional supplementation of the medium. Investigations have shown that small molecules (like cytokines and growth factors) and macromolecules (including glycosaminoglycans and proteoglycans) can be transported through the ECM by diffusion47. However, the molecular diffusion of oxygen, nutrients, and other bioactive molecules may be hindered by the properties of the ECM hydrogel itself. Lower diffusion was correlated with the higher thickness of the hydrogel but also with a very high concentration of collagen37. In this study, to create the skin equivalent, a low collagen concentration equal to 2 mg/mL was used, which suggests that the molecular diffusion through the hydrogel should be good and rapid. Thus, no additional supplementation to the medium at this stage nor to the hydrogel itself was provided. To mimic the dermis, mast cells and fibroblasts (1:10) were embedded into the collagen hydrogel. Next, melanocytes and keratinocytes (1:15) were seeded onto the hydrogel and the whole equivalent was cultured in the medium. It is worth mentioning that the basic medium is composed of several amino acids, inorganic acids, and vitamins, and it is additionally supplemented with serum (consisting of multiple: growth and attachment factors for cells, lipids, hormones, nutrients, and energy sources, carriers, binding and transfer proteins, etc.). To achieve the proper structure of the epidermis, different supplements to the medium should be added at a certain time. The most important stimulator to initiate epidermal differentiation is calcium, as it activates intracellular signaling. Ascorbic acid stimulates a similar signaling pathway as the one mediated by calcium, but its effect is also accompanied by enhanced ascorbate transport and prevention of hydrophilic antioxidant depletion41. Furthermore, the differentiation of cells was improved when other components were added to the medium (such as caffeine, hydrocortisone, triiodothyronine, adenine, and cholera toxin)41,44. It is important that the prepared models should always be checked for the presence of a given cell type in the appropriate layer. The presence of all four types of skin cells was confirmed in the structure of the created equivalent by H&E staining.

The most common problem encountered is the delicacy and intuition in the handling of the obtained models. Some difficulties may be connected with the cell sphere formation as well as with the hydrogel preparation. During the cell culture, several other problems can also occur; these include microbial infections, low proliferation rate of cells, aging of primary cells used in the models, maximum cultivation time of 2D and 3D models reconstructed from primary cells vs. cell lines, etc. In Table 10, some practical advice were gathered on what to do when one of the following problems is encountered.

Common problems in cell cultureSuggestions
Microbial infectionIf a microbial infection occurs in one of the flasks/dishes with cells, it is better to remove the infected culture as fast as possible (not to contaminate the remaining flasks/dishes with cells). Refreeze a new vial with cells.  If the infection returns, it is good to try to widen the spectra of the applied antibiotics and increase their concentration.
Low proliferation rate of cellsSome cells have a long doubling time. To stimulate their proliferation, several cell-specific growth factors can be added to the basic medium. Also increasing the concentration of FBS or L-glutamine in the basal medium may help to stimulate the growth of the cells.
Aging of primary cells used in the modelsAfter a few passages, the primary cells enter senescence and stop dividing. To overcome this problem in the models, it is recommended to use the cells from as early passage as possible to build the model. 
Maximum cultivation time of 2D and 3D models reconstructed from primary cells vs. cell linesThe time of cultivation of a model depends strongly on the type of used cells. With primary cells, the time of cultivation will be shorter due to their short life span.
Difficulties in the cell sphere formationSome cells may require a longer time for sphere formation. If after a few more days the spheres have not been formed, collect the cells from the sample and check their viability with, for example, trypan blue staining.
Problems with sphere stabilityIf the spheres are not stable and get destroyed while handling, try to create spheres from a lower number of cells. Make sure to always gently transfer the dishes in which the spheres are growing.   
Difficulties with the hydrogel preparation Check if the proportion of the ingredients (water, PBS [10x], NaOH, collagen type 1) was correct. The stock solution of collagen is usually very dense, thus make sure to slowly pipet it. Air bubbles disturb the morphology of the hydrogel, thus reverse pipetting of the gel may help with this issue. 

Table 10: Cell culture troubleshooting

The established models after fabrication can be used in multiple fields, beginning with (1) cytotoxicity and genotoxicity experiments of novel compounds with biological activity for use in drugs and cosmetics49, (2) experiments with various factor stimulation50, (3) basic research increasing our knowledge about skin cells, their biological functions, interactions with other cells and the environment51,52, (4) research on selected disease entities where a specific type of cell can be introduced into the created model (cancer cells, cells with a mutation in a given gene, etc.14,53) and many more. It is needless to say that the application of these models stays in agreement with the 3Rs principle for more ethical use of animals in product testing and scientific research and does not violate the prohibition law of cosmetic product testing on animals.

披露

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作者声明无利益冲突。

致谢

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作者感谢华沙理工大学通过“卓越计划——研究型大学”项目提供的两项资助:POB BIB BIOTECHMED-2 启动基金(编号:1820/2/ZO1/POB4/2021)以及校长资助的学生科研小组项目(SKIN-ART,编号:1820/116/Z16/2021)。此外,作者还感谢 Joanna Cieśla 教授以及药物与化妆品生物技术系 和华沙理工大学化学学院生物技术科学俱乐部“Herbion”所提供的支持。特别感谢 Michał Stepulak 博士提供了 Pluronic F-127 化合物。

材料

本文使用的材料清单
姓名公司目录编号评论
用于贴壁细胞培养的24孔板Biologix Europe GmbH07-6024-
35%–38% HCLChempur115752837-
60 mm 细胞培养培养皿 705001-
亲和素−磺基罗丹明101Sigma AldrichA2348-5MG-
倒置明场显微镜奥林巴斯CKX41-
氯化钙Avantor874870116-
T75 贴壁细胞培养瓶GenoplastG77080033-
15 mL 离心管GoogLab ScientificG66010522-
CO2 培养箱Heal ForceGalaxy 170R-
兔源 Col1A2 抗体NovusNBP2-92790-
Corning(R) Transwell(R) 聚碳酸酯CorningCLS3422-48EA-
小鼠源细胞角蛋白14抗体NovusNBP1-79069-
组织学用DPX封片剂Sigma Aldrich06522-100ML-
杜尔贝科改良伊格尔培养基(DMEM)VWR ChemicalsL0102-500-
伊红YKolchem-0.5 % 水溶液
Eppendorf管 1.5 mLSarstedt72.690.001-
2 mL 离心管Sarstedt72.691-
无水乙醇 99.8%Avantor396480111用超纯水稀释至所需浓度 
胎牛血清Gibco10270106-
荧光倒置显微镜 OlympusIX71-
FITC标记的山羊抗小鼠二抗Sigma AldrichF0257-1mL
FITC标记的山羊抗兔二抗NovusNB7159-
Harris苏木精科尔切姆-1 mg/mL,溶于95%乙醇
Hoechst 33342ThermoFisherH3570-
层流室Heal ForceHFSafe-1200-
小鼠来源的Melan-A抗体Santa Cruz Biotechnologysc-20032-
切片机微米HM355S-
NaOH Avantor810981997-
石蜡颗粒Sigma Aldrich1.07164-
多聚甲醛Sigma Aldrich1581227-
青霉素/链霉素溶液Sigma AldrichP4333-
移液器吸头,1000 µLSarstedt70.305-
移液器吸头,20 µLSarstedt70.3021-
移液器吸头,200 µLSarstedt70.303-
Pluronic F-127BASF50401036-
10 mL 血清移液管GoogLab ScientificG33270011-
25 mL 血清移液管GoogLab ScientificG33280011-
5 mL 血清移液管GoogLab ScientificG33260011-
碳酸氢钠Sigma AldrichS5761-
碳酸氢钠Chempur118105307
0.25% 胰蛋白酶-EDTA 溶液,含酚红Sigma Aldrich25200072-
I型胶原蛋白IBIDI50201-
U型底96孔板Sarstedt83.3925500-
二甲苯Sigma Aldrich534056-

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