Name: mitosis and cytokinesis stages
Uploaded: 2021-04-07T12:12:01.000Z
Duration: 2 min 3 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

ohios-learning-standards-and-model-curriculum

Ohio’s Learning Standards and Model Curriculum

9-12

Biology

Heredity

Cellular genetics

Mitosis and Cytokinesis

Mitose besteht aus fünf verschiedenen Stadien und ist eine Form der Teilung, bei der das genetische Material einer Zelle zwischen zwei Tochterzellen aufgeteilt wird.
 Erst kondensiert Nucleinchromatin während der Prophase beim Menschen zu X-förmigen Chromosomen, die aus Schwesterchromatidenpaaren bestehen, die an Zentromerübergängen gebunden sind.
 Gleichzeitig wandern außerhalb des Zellkerns zwei L-förmige Organellen, die als Zentrosomen bezeichnet werden, zu gegenüberliegenden Zellseiten.
 Dabei wachsen Mikrotubuli-Stäbchen aus beiden entweder nach innen oder nach außen und bilden eine bahnförmige Spindelvorrichtung.
 Als nächstes löst sich die Kernhülle während der Prometaphase auf und setzt die Chromosomen den anderen Inhalten der Zelle aus.
 Proteinstrukturen erscheinen auch auf beiden Seiten der Zentromere, eine für jedes Chromatid.
 Sobald sich diese Kinetochoren gebildet haben, befestigen sich an ihnen sich erstreckende innere Mikrotubuli, wobei jedes Schwesterchromatid an einen anderen Zellpol gebunden ist.
 Die Mitose schreitet dann zur Metaphase fort, in der der Spindelapparat die Chromosomen so umordnet, dass sie in einer festen Reihe entlang des Äquators der Zelle ähnlich ausgerichtet sind.
 Mit Anaphase verkürzen sich kinetochor-fixierte Mikrotubuli und Schwesterchromatiden, die nun einzeln als Chromosomen bezeichnet werden, werden auseinandergezogen.
 Diese und andere Mikrotubulusdynamiken verlängern ebenfalls die Zelle.
 Schließlich landen die Chromosomen während der Telophase auf gegenüberliegenden Zellseiten, wo sich der Spindelapparat löst.
 Das genetische Material löst sich und zwei Kernhüllen, eine um jedes Chromosomenset kommen hinzu.
 Während der Telophase wird die Zelle in einem bestimmten Prozess, der als Zytokinese bezeichnet wird, zytoplasmatisch geteilt.
 Somit ist das Endergebnis der Mitose ein Zellpaar, das genetisch mit deren Vorläufer identisch ist.

Guertin, David A., Susanne Trautmann und Dannel McCollum. "Zytokinese in Eukaryoten." Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev. 66, Nr. 2 (1. Juni 2002): 155–78. [<a href="https://doi.org/10.1128/MMBR.66.2.155-178.2002" target="__blank">Quelle</a>]

mitose und zytokinese

In eukaryotischen Zellen wird der Zyklus der Zellteilung in verschiedene, koordinierte zelluläre Prozesse unterteilt. Hierzu gehört das Zellwachstum, die DNA-Replikation/Chromosomenduplikation, die Verteilung der Chromosomen auf die Tochterzellen und schließlich die Zellteilung. Der Zellzyklus ist streng gesteuert durch regulatorische Systeme sowie durch extrazelluläre Signale, welche die Zellproliferation beeinflussen.
 
 Die Prozesse des Zellzyklus geschehen in normalen menschlichen Zellen in einem Zeitraum von 24 Stunden und in zwei wesentlichen unterscheidbaren Phasen ab. Das erste Stadium ist die DNA-Replikation, während der S-Phase der Interphase. Das zweite Stadium ist die mitotische (M) Phase. Sie umfasst die Trennung der verdoppelten Chromosomen in zwei neue Zellkerne (Mitose) und die Teilung des Zytoplasmas (Zytokinese). Die beiden Phasen sind durch Intervalle (G1 und G2 gaps) getrennt, in denen sich die Zelle auf die Replikation und Teilung vorbereitet.
 
 <h4>Der Mitose Prozess</h4>
 
 Die Mitose kann in fünf verschiedene Stadien unterteilt werden. Dazu gehören Prophase, Prometaphase, Metaphase, Anaphase und Telophase. Die Zytokinese, die während der Anaphase oder Telophase (je nach Zelle) beginnt, ist Teil der M-Phase, aber nicht Teil der Mitose.
 
 <h4>Die Prophase</h4>
 
 Wenn die Zelle in die Mitose eintritt, beginnen ihre replizierten Chromosomen zu kondensieren und werden als fadenförmige Strukturen sichtbar. Dieser Prozess geschieht mit Hilfe von speziellen Proteinen, den so genannten Condensinen. Dann beginnt sich der mitotische Spindelapparat zwischen den Zentrosomen zu bilden, die während der S-Phase verdoppelt wurden. Die Zentrosome wandern dann in Richtung der entgegengesetzten Polen der Zelle. Die Spindel besteht aus fadenförmigen Strukturen, den so genannten Mikrotubuli, welche aus monomeren Tubulinproteinen bestehen. Die Mikrotubuli der Spindel beginnen sich dann in Richtung der kondensierten Chromosomen zu verlängern. Der Nukleolus, ein Bestandteil des Nukleus, der normalerweise Ribosomen produziert, verschwindet. Dies deutet auf den bevorstehenden Zerfall des Nukleus hin.
 
 <h4>Die Prometaphase</h4>
 
 Während der Prometaphase verlängern sich die Mikrotubuli-Filamente aus dem Spindelapparat weiter und die Chromosomen kondensieren. Die Kernhülle bricht vollständig auf und setzt die Chromosomen frei. Einige der Mikrotubuli heften sich an die freigesetzten Chromosomen und binden an eine Proteinstruktur, dem Kinetochore. Das Kinetochore befindet sich an dem Zentromer von jedem Paar der Schwesterchromatiden. Die Mikrotubuli der Spindelfasern der entgegengesetzten Polen heften sich an die Kinetochore und fangen die kondensierten Schwesterchromatiden ein. Einige Mikrotubuli (polare und astrale Mikrotubuli) binden nicht die Chromosomen sondern helfen die Spindeln auseinander zu drücken und die Spindelpole an der Zellmembran zu verankern.
 
 <h4>Die Metaphase</h4>
 
 Die Mikrotubuli der Spindelfasern richten jedes Paar der vollkondensierten Schwesterchromatiden entlang des Zelläquators der Metaphasenplatte aus. Die Zelle ist nun bereit zur Teilung.
 
 <h4>Die Anaphase</h4>
 
 Die Mikrotubuli der gegenüberliegenden Spindelpole, die an dem Kinetochore befestigt sind, verkürzen sich und trennen die Schwesterchromatiden am Zentromer. Die Kohäsionsproteine, welche die Chromatiden zusammenhalten, werden nun abgebaut. Die verkürzenden Kinetochore-Mikrotubuli bewirken, dass jedes Chromatid des Schwesterpaares, jetzt Tochterchromosome genannt, zu einem entgegengesetzten Pol wandert.
 
 <h4>Die Telophase</h4>
 
 Wenn die Chromosome die entgegengesetzte Pole der Zelle erreichen, dekondensieren sie und entwickeln sich um Chromatin zu formen. Die Mikrotubuli-Filamente der Spindelfasern depolymerisieren in monomeres Tubulin, welches dann als Zytoskelett-Element in den Tochterzellen verwendet wird. Die Kernhüllen formen sich um jeden Chromosomensatz.
 
 <h4>Die Zytokinese</h4>
 
 Bei der Zytokinese bilden in tierischen Zellen Aktin-Filamente einen zusammenziehbaren Ring in der Plasmamembran. Dadurch entsteht eine Teilungsfurche, welche die Zelle schließlich in zwei Teile teilt. In Pflanzenzellen verbinden sich Vesikel des Golgi-Apparates, die Glucose, Enzyme und Strukturproteine tragen, zu einer neuen Zellwandplatte an der Stelle der ehemaligen Metaphasenplatte. Die wachsende Zellwandplatte verschmilzt mit den Plasmamembranen auf jeder Seite und bildet schließlich eine neue Zellwand, welche die Zelle in zwei teilt.
 
 Die Mitose ist nun abgeschlossen und hat zwei Tochterzellen hervorgebracht, die mit der Mutterzelle identisch sind. In den meisten menschlichen Zellen macht die Mitose etwa eine Stunde des etwa 24-stündigen Zellzyklus aus.

Mitose und Zytokinese

In Eukaryoten ist der Zellteilungszyklus in verschiedene, koordinierte zelluläre Prozesse unterteilt, die das Zellwachstum, die DNA-Replikation/Chromosomenreplikation ...

Education

Lehre

JoVE Core

Molecular Biology

Molekularbiologie

Unit 2

Einheit 2

Cell Division

Zellteilung

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

KERNBEGRIFFE UND KONZEPTE

mitosis and cytokinesis stages

Mitosis and cytokinesis are the two main steps of cell division. Mitosis is the process that divides the nucleus, while cytokinesis splits the rest of the cell.

During mitosis, the cell’s genetic material is separated into two sets. This helps form two new nuclei with the same genetic information. Cytokinesis then completes division by separating the cytoplasm, which creates two daughter cells.

These stages work together to make cell division possible in growing and repairing tissues. Understanding mitosis and cytokinesis helps explain how one cell becomes two.

Mitosis and Cytokinesis Stages

mitosis and cytokinesis

Mitosis and cytokinesis are the two main steps of cell division. Mitosis is the process that divides the nucleus, while cytokinesis splits the rest of the cell. During mitosis, the cell’s genetic material is separated into two sets. This helps form two new nuclei with the same genetic information. Cytokinesis then completes division by separating the cytoplasm, which creates two daughter cells. These stages work together to make cell division possible in growing and repairing tissues.

duplication of chromatin structure

Chromatin Rebuilding During DNA Replication

Chromatin rebuilding during DNA replication helps cells copy DNA and pass on chromosome structure to daughter cells. During cell division, the genome must be disrupted and then reassembled across the whole chromosome. This process allows chromatin to be inherited, rebuilt, and maintained in new cells. The basic unit of chromatin is the nucleosome. A nucleosome contains DNA wrapped around an octamer of histone proteins, with short linker DNA between neighboring nucleosomes. The histone proteins...

cohesins

Cohesins in Meiosis and Genetic Disorders

Cohesin protein complexes act like molecular glue that keeps sister chromatids together. They are important in both mitosis and meiosis. In mitosis, cohesin complexes are removed from chromosomes before anaphase begins. Meiosis has two rounds of chromosome separation. Meiosis I separates homologous chromosomes, while Meiosis II separates sister chromatids. This process produces four daughter cells. The Meiosis I cohesin complex is made of four subunits: Smc1, Smc3, Rec8, and Scc3. Rec8...

condensins

How Condensins Shape Mitotic Chromosomes

Condensins shape chromosomes during mitosis, the stage when a cell divides. These large protein complexes use ATP, the cell’s energy molecule, to help turn loose post-interphase DNA into compact, separate chromosomes. They organize and segregate chromosomal DNA so it can be passed on correctly. Plant and animal cells contain two condensin complexes: condensin I and condensin II. Each complex has five subunits. Two are SMC, or Structural Maintenance of Chromosomes, subunits. One is a kleisin...

the mitotic spindle

How the Mitotic Spindle Separates Chromosomes

The mitotic spindle is a microtubule-based structure that helps separate chromosomes during cell division. It forms in eukaryotic cells and moves sister chromatids to opposite ends of the parent cell. This leaves each new cell nucleus with the correct genetic material. A bipolar spindle has two poles, and that shape is important for chromosome segregation. In many animal cells, two centrosomes are present when mitosis begins. Each centrosome helps organize a circular set of microtubules at one...

centrosome duplication

Centrosome Duplication in the Cell Cycle

Centrosome duplication is a key part of the animal cell cycle. The centrosome is the main microtubule organizing center, or MTOC, in animal cells. It contains two cylindrical centrioles at its core. Each centriole has nine sets of three microtubules held together by proteins. The two centrioles sit at right angles and are surrounded by the pericentriolar matrix, or PCM, a shapeless protein cloud. Duplication starts early in the cell cycle so each daughter cell can receive a centrosome after...

microtubule instability

Microtubule Growth and Shrinkage

Microtubules are hollow, cylindrical filaments in the cell. They are about 25 nm wide and can range from 200 nm to 25 μm in length. Their main building blocks are GTP-bound tubulin subunits that form αβ-heterodimers, which then assemble into protofilaments. These protofilaments join by lateral bonds to create stable microtubule cylinders. Microtubules are highly dynamic because they repeatedly assemble and break down. They can even grow on one end while shrinking on the other at the same time.

spindle assembly

How the Mitotic Spindle Forms

The mitotic spindle forms through centrosome-mediated, chromatin-mediated, and microtubule-mediated pathways. These pathways often work at the same time. Together, they build a strong spindle apparatus for cell division. In most cells, centrosomes are the main sites where microtubules begin to grow. During the G2 to prophase transition, centrosomes mature and make more microtubules. The growing microtubules extend from both centrosomes, and their plus-ends search for chromosomes by attaching...

attachment of sister chromatids

Kinetochore-Microtubule Binding in Mitosis

Kinetochore-microtubule binding helps chromosomes line up and separate during mitosis. After the nuclear envelope breaks down, condensed chromosomes are exposed to the bipolar microtubules of the mitotic spindle. The kinetochore is a large, disc-shaped protein complex at the centromere region of each sister chromatid, and it serves as the microtubule binding site. Usually, the plus-end of a single microtubule inserts into the kinetochore. In some cases, a kinetochore first makes lateral...

forces acting on chromosomes

Chromosome Movement During Mitosis

Chromosome movement during mitosis depends on several small forces that act at different times and positions in the cell. In prometaphase, these forces help chromosomes move to the equatorial plane and line up at the metaphase plate. Because the forces change with location and stage, chromosome behavior also changes as mitosis continues. Microtubules and motor proteins create two main kinds of force on chromosomes: poleward force and anti-poleward force, also called polar-ejection force.

separation of sister chromatids

Anaphase Start and Chromatid Release

Anaphase starts when sister chromatids are released from one another and pulled toward opposite spindle poles. Before that happens, cohesion along the chromosomal arms is reduced from prophase to metaphase, which helps the sister chromatids resolve. A residual cohesin link still holds them together until the metaphase-to-anaphase transition. This leftover connection helps prevent early separation and reduces the risk of aneuploidy, or the wrong number of chromosomes, in daughter cells. At the...

the spindle assembly checkpoint

How Cells Safeguard Chromosome Separation

The spindle assembly checkpoint helps cells safeguard chromosome separation during anaphase. It acts as a molecular surveillance system. The checkpoint checks whether the steps needed for chromosome segregation are complete before the cell moves on. Many proteins work together to control this checkpoint. If mutations affect these proteins, a cell may enter anaphase too early. Chromosomes can then separate before the needed steps are finished. When this happens, the daughter cells may receive...

anaphase a and b

Chromatid Movement by Microtubule Forces

Chromatid movement during anaphase depends on microtubule forces at the spindle. Kinetochore microtubules grow from the spindle poles, and their plus ends attach to kinetochores on sister chromatids. The kinetochore protein complex Ndc80 makes low-affinity links with the microtubule plus end.

the contractile ring

How Cells Build the Contractile Ring

Contractile rings are built from microfilaments and help separate daughter cells during cytokinesis. This ring forms as the cell cycle moves forward, but the exact timing and coordination with other cell cycle events are still not fully understood. RhoA, a small GTPase in the Ras superfamily, controls contractile ring assembly and function. The inactive form of RhoA is bound to GDP. A guanine nucleotide exchange factor, or Rho-GEF, is located in the cortex region, where the next cell division...

determining the plane of cell division

How Cells Set the Division Plane

How cells set the division plane during cell division affects daughter cell size and, in many cases, cell fate. The plane of division is perpendicular to the plane of chromosome segregation. Different organisms use different cues to place it, based on their shape and needs. In animal cells, the cleavage furrow forms along the division plane from the cell cortex, the area just below the plasma membrane. The mitotic spindle is the main guide for this position. If the spindle axis changes, the...

the phragmoplast

How Plant Cells Build a New Wall

Plant cells build a new wall during cytokinesis with help from the phragmoplast. This plant structure forms from the central spindle and related cell parts as the cell finishes dividing. In animal cells, the comparable structure is the midbody, but in plants the phragmoplast expands outward to guide new wall formation. The mature phragmoplast has a donut-like shape. It has an outer leading region, a middle transition zone, and an inner lagging region. New microtubules are assembled...

distribution of cytoplasmic content

How Organelles Are Split During Cytokinesis

Cytokinesis splits a cell’s chromosomes and organelles into two daughter cells. Before cell division, organelles grow and divide. They cannot be made from scratch, so each daughter cell must inherit at least one copy to survive. Many details of this organelle sorting process are still not fully known. The cytoplasm contains organelles, salts, proteins, and water. Small organelles such as peroxisomes and lysosomes can be shared by simple diffusion. Because cells contain many copies of these...

anaphase promoting complex

APC Activates Chromosome Separation

The anaphase-promoting complex, or APC, helps control cell cycle progression by destroying specific proteins at the right time. These proteins are tagged with ubiquitin by ubiquitin ligases and then broken down by the proteasome. The SCF (Skp1/Cullin/F-box) complex and APC are two major ubiquitin ligases involved in this process. SCF stays active throughout the cell cycle, but APC turns on during the metaphase-to-anaphase transition. APC becomes active when Cdc20 or Cdh1 binds to it. These...

key terms and concepts

Learn how mitosis separates the nucleus and cytokinesis divides the cytoplasm to form two daughter cells. Clear high school cell division content.

Mitosis and Cytokinesis Stages | JoVE K12

molecular biology

JoVE Core Molecular Biology veranschaulicht die molekularen Prozesse der Zelle in prägnanten animierten Video-Lektionen. In Videos von Wissenschaftlern in Aktion wird die Anwendung dieser Konzepte zusätzlich durch reale Experimente in modernen Laboren demonstriert.

myJoVE Corporation

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Modern genetics

Mitosis and Cytokinesis Stages

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