Name: microtubule growth and shrinkage
Uploaded: 2021-04-07T12:12:01.000Z
Duration: 2 min 17 s
Channel: JoVE

En las células eucariotas, durante la división celular, los microtúbulos forman los componentes principales del huso mitótico y son necesarios para la segregación cromosómica.
Los microtúbulos son extremadamente dinámicos. Los microtúbulos individuales crecen, se encogen y alternan rápidamente entre las fases de crecimiento y acortamiento. Los microtúbulos exhiben inestabilidad dinámica, el cambio impredecible entre el crecimiento y la contracción.
El cambio del crecimiento a la contracción se llama catástrofe y el cambio de la contracción al crecimiento se llama rescate. En cualquier momento, un grupo de microtúbulos se está ensamblando activamente, mientras que otros se están desensamblando rápidamente.
Los microtúbulos se nuclean y crecen por la polimerización de extremo a extremo de los heterodímeros de tubulina unidos a GTP. El heterodímero de tubulina comprende una subunidad alfa y beta.
La subunidad beta-tubulina está unida a una forma hidrolizable de GTP. La hidrólisis de GTP a GDP desestabiliza el marco de microtúbulos. La estructura se despliega en la punta y el efecto se propaga hacia abajo, provocando la despolimerización del microtúbulo.
Una variedad de proteínas reguladoras controlan la dinámica de los microtúbulos. Varias proteínas asociadas a los microtúbulos o MAPs promueven la estabilidad de los microtúbulos, mientras que otras proteínas, los factores catastróficos, desestabilizan los microtúbulos. Las células alteran la actividad de las proteínas reguladoras para cambiar la dinámica de los microtúbulos en función de la fase del ciclo celular.
Por ejemplo, durante la interfase, la mayoría de las células animales contienen una matriz citoplasmática de microtúbulos largos que irradian desde un solo centrosoma. A medida que las células pasan a la fase mitótica y los centrosomas duplicados se mueven hacia los polos opuestos, aumenta la inestabilidad de los microtúbulos.
La inestabilidad de los microtúbulos facilita la formación de una matriz densa y dinámica de microtúbulos mitóticos, lo que contribuye a la formación del huso.

<ol>
	<li>de Forges, H., Bouissou, A. y Pérez, F., 2012. Interacción entre la dinámica de los microtúbulos y la organización intracelular. Revista internacional de bioquímica y biología celular, 44(2), pp.266-274. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocel.2011.11.009</li>
	<li>Burbank, K.S. y Mitchison, T.J., 2006. Inestabilidad dinámica de los microtúbulos. Biología Actual, 14(16), pp. R516-R517. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2006.06.044</li>
	<li>Vaart, B.V.D., Akhmanova, A. y Straube, A., 2009. Regulación de la inestabilidad dinámica de los microtúbulos. Transacciones de la Sociedad Bioquímica, 37(5), pp.1007-1013. https://doi.org/10.1042/BST0371007</li>
</ol>

inestabilidad de microtúbulos

Microtubule Instability

Los microtúbulos son filamentos cilíndricos huecos que tienen un diámetro de aproximadamente 25 nm y una longitud que varía de 200 nm a 25 µm. Las subunidades de tubulina unidas a GTP forman heterodímeros αβ para el ensamblaje de microtúbulos. Estos bloques de construcción centrales interactúan longitudinalmente y se polimerizan en protofilamentos. Luego, los protofilamentos interactúan entre sí a través de fuerzas de unión laterales para formar microtúbulos cilíndricos estables. Estos filamentos cilíndricos son dinámicos ya que se someten a repetidos montajes y desmontajes. Esta inestabilidad dinámica característica se puede encontrar tanto in vivo como in vitro.

Inestabilidad dinámica

Los microtúbulos individuales pueden alargarse y encogerse simultáneamente en los extremos opuestos en un momento dado. El hecho de que un microtúbulo crezca o se contraiga está determinado por sus tasas de catástrofe y rescate. La catástrofe ocurre cuando un microtúbulo en crecimiento comienza a acortarse rápidamente. El rescate es el cambio de un microtúbulo que se encoge para alargarse rápidamente. La tasa de hidrólisis del GTP unido a β-tubulina es un factor principal que determina la inestabilidad dinámica.

En la célula, tanto las subunidades de tubulina libres como sus formas αβ-heterodiméricas están presentes en el depósito citoplasmático. La polimerización de las subunidades de tubulina se inicia cuando las subunidades heterodiméricas αβ unidas a GTP están por encima de una concentración umbral, denominada concentración crítica para la polimerización de microtúbulos. La β-tubulina existe en dos formas. La β-tubulina unida a GTP o forma T es responsable del alargamiento y la estructura lineal estable de los microtúbulos. Por el contrario, la β-tubulina unida a GDP o la forma D favorece el desmontaje de los microtúbulos. Las β-tubulinas unidas a GTP en el extremo en crecimiento actúan como una tapa, evitando la curvatura del protofilamento y promoviendo el alargamiento. Tras la hidrólisis del GTP, la conformación de la β-tubulina se altera ligeramente, lo que da como resultado la curvatura del protofilamento. Esta curvatura facilita la unión de proteínas desestabilizadoras como la estatmina y la cinesina-13 para eliminar los heterodímeros de αβ-tubulina.

Factores que regulan la inestabilidad.

Las proteínas asociadas a los microtúbulos o MAP son reguladores críticos de la inestabilidad dinámica de los microtúbulos. Los MAP se clasifican ampliamente como estabilizadores y desestabilizadores según su función en la dinámica de los microtúbulos. Los MAP estabilizadores se unen a los microtúbulos para reducir el evento catastrófico y promover el alargamiento. Por otro lado, los desestabilizadores se unen para promover la catástrofe. Los MAP estabilizadores son dominantes durante la interfase y en los microtúbulos axonales y dendríticos de las neuronas, promoviendo ensamblajes estables. Durante la mitosis, los MAP desestabilizadores son más comunes. Estos MAP son responsables de la segregación cromosómica y del desmontaje de la malla citoesquelética para la división celular.

Inestabilidad de microtúbulos

Los microtúbulos son filamentos cilíndricos huecos que tienen un diámetro aproximado de 25 nm y una longitud que varía de 200 nm a 25 μm.

Education

Educación

JoVE Core

Molecular Biology

Biología Molecular

Unit 2

Unidad 2

Cell Division

División celular

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

TÉRMINOS Y CONCEPTOS CLAVE

microtubule growth and shrinkage

Microtubules are hollow, cylindrical filaments in the cell. They are about 25 nm wide and can range from 200 nm to 25 μm in length. Their main building blocks are GTP-bound tubulin subunits that form αβ-heterodimers, which then assemble into protofilaments. These protofilaments join by lateral bonds to create stable microtubule cylinders.

Microtubules are highly dynamic because they repeatedly assemble and break down. They can even grow on one end while shrinking on the other at the same time. This behavior is called dynamic instability. It is seen both in living cells and in vitro.

Whether a microtubule grows or shortens depends on catastrophe and rescue. Catastrophe is the rapid switch from growth to shrinkage. Rescue is the switch from shrinkage back to growth. The rate of GTP hydrolysis on β-tubulin is a major factor that controls this behavior.

Cells contain both free tubulin subunits and αβ-heterodimers in the cytoplasmic pool. Polymerization starts when GTP-bound αβ-heterodimers rise above the critical concentration for microtubule polymerization. β-tubulin also exists in two forms. The GTP-bound T-form supports elongation and a stable, straight microtubule. The GDP-bound D-form favors disassembly.

At the growing end, GTP-bound β-tubulin forms a cap that helps block protofilament bending and supports elongation. When GTP is hydrolyzed, β-tubulin changes shape slightly and protofilaments curve. This curved state helps destabilizing proteins such as stathmin and kinesin-13 bind and remove αβ-tubulin heterodimers.

Microtubule-associated proteins, or MAPs, also regulate dynamic instability. Some MAPs stabilize microtubules, while others promote destabilization. Stabilizer MAPs reduce catastrophe and support elongation. They are common during interphase and in the axonal and dendritic microtubules of neurons, where stable structures are needed. During mitosis, destabilizer MAPs are more common. They help chromosome segregation and the breakdown of the cytoskeletal mesh for cell division.

Microtubule Growth and Shrinkage

mitosis and cytokinesis

Mitosis and Cytokinesis Stages

Mitosis and cytokinesis are the two main steps of cell division. Mitosis is the process that divides the nucleus, while cytokinesis splits the rest of the cell. During mitosis, the cell’s genetic material is separated into two sets. This helps form two new nuclei with the same genetic information. Cytokinesis then completes division by separating the cytoplasm, which creates two daughter cells. These stages work together to make cell division possible in growing and repairing tissues.

duplication of chromatin structure

Chromatin Rebuilding During DNA Replication

Chromatin rebuilding during DNA replication helps cells copy DNA and pass on chromosome structure to daughter cells. During cell division, the genome must be disrupted and then reassembled across the whole chromosome. This process allows chromatin to be inherited, rebuilt, and maintained in new cells. The basic unit of chromatin is the nucleosome. A nucleosome contains DNA wrapped around an octamer of histone proteins, with short linker DNA between neighboring nucleosomes. The histone proteins...

cohesins

Cohesins in Meiosis and Genetic Disorders

Cohesin protein complexes act like molecular glue that keeps sister chromatids together. They are important in both mitosis and meiosis. In mitosis, cohesin complexes are removed from chromosomes before anaphase begins. Meiosis has two rounds of chromosome separation. Meiosis I separates homologous chromosomes, while Meiosis II separates sister chromatids. This process produces four daughter cells. The Meiosis I cohesin complex is made of four subunits: Smc1, Smc3, Rec8, and Scc3. Rec8...

condensins

How Condensins Shape Mitotic Chromosomes

Condensins shape chromosomes during mitosis, the stage when a cell divides. These large protein complexes use ATP, the cell’s energy molecule, to help turn loose post-interphase DNA into compact, separate chromosomes. They organize and segregate chromosomal DNA so it can be passed on correctly. Plant and animal cells contain two condensin complexes: condensin I and condensin II. Each complex has five subunits. Two are SMC, or Structural Maintenance of Chromosomes, subunits. One is a kleisin...

the mitotic spindle

How the Mitotic Spindle Separates Chromosomes

The mitotic spindle is a microtubule-based structure that helps separate chromosomes during cell division. It forms in eukaryotic cells and moves sister chromatids to opposite ends of the parent cell. This leaves each new cell nucleus with the correct genetic material. A bipolar spindle has two poles, and that shape is important for chromosome segregation. In many animal cells, two centrosomes are present when mitosis begins. Each centrosome helps organize a circular set of microtubules at one...

centrosome duplication

Centrosome Duplication in the Cell Cycle

Centrosome duplication is a key part of the animal cell cycle. The centrosome is the main microtubule organizing center, or MTOC, in animal cells. It contains two cylindrical centrioles at its core. Each centriole has nine sets of three microtubules held together by proteins. The two centrioles sit at right angles and are surrounded by the pericentriolar matrix, or PCM, a shapeless protein cloud. Duplication starts early in the cell cycle so each daughter cell can receive a centrosome after...

microtubule instability

Microtubules are hollow, cylindrical filaments in the cell. They are about 25 nm wide and can range from 200 nm to 25 μm in length. Their main building blocks are GTP-bound tubulin subunits that form αβ-heterodimers, which then assemble into protofilaments. These protofilaments join by lateral bonds to create stable microtubule cylinders. Microtubules are highly dynamic because they repeatedly assemble and break down. They can even grow on one end while shrinking on the other at the same time.

spindle assembly

How the Mitotic Spindle Forms

The mitotic spindle forms through centrosome-mediated, chromatin-mediated, and microtubule-mediated pathways. These pathways often work at the same time. Together, they build a strong spindle apparatus for cell division. In most cells, centrosomes are the main sites where microtubules begin to grow. During the G2 to prophase transition, centrosomes mature and make more microtubules. The growing microtubules extend from both centrosomes, and their plus-ends search for chromosomes by attaching...

attachment of sister chromatids

Kinetochore-Microtubule Binding in Mitosis

Kinetochore-microtubule binding helps chromosomes line up and separate during mitosis. After the nuclear envelope breaks down, condensed chromosomes are exposed to the bipolar microtubules of the mitotic spindle. The kinetochore is a large, disc-shaped protein complex at the centromere region of each sister chromatid, and it serves as the microtubule binding site. Usually, the plus-end of a single microtubule inserts into the kinetochore. In some cases, a kinetochore first makes lateral...

forces acting on chromosomes

Chromosome Movement During Mitosis

Chromosome movement during mitosis depends on several small forces that act at different times and positions in the cell. In prometaphase, these forces help chromosomes move to the equatorial plane and line up at the metaphase plate. Because the forces change with location and stage, chromosome behavior also changes as mitosis continues. Microtubules and motor proteins create two main kinds of force on chromosomes: poleward force and anti-poleward force, also called polar-ejection force.

separation of sister chromatids

Anaphase Start and Chromatid Release

Anaphase starts when sister chromatids are released from one another and pulled toward opposite spindle poles. Before that happens, cohesion along the chromosomal arms is reduced from prophase to metaphase, which helps the sister chromatids resolve. A residual cohesin link still holds them together until the metaphase-to-anaphase transition. This leftover connection helps prevent early separation and reduces the risk of aneuploidy, or the wrong number of chromosomes, in daughter cells. At the...

the spindle assembly checkpoint

How Cells Safeguard Chromosome Separation

The spindle assembly checkpoint helps cells safeguard chromosome separation during anaphase. It acts as a molecular surveillance system. The checkpoint checks whether the steps needed for chromosome segregation are complete before the cell moves on. Many proteins work together to control this checkpoint. If mutations affect these proteins, a cell may enter anaphase too early. Chromosomes can then separate before the needed steps are finished. When this happens, the daughter cells may receive...

anaphase a and b

Chromatid Movement by Microtubule Forces

Chromatid movement during anaphase depends on microtubule forces at the spindle. Kinetochore microtubules grow from the spindle poles, and their plus ends attach to kinetochores on sister chromatids. The kinetochore protein complex Ndc80 makes low-affinity links with the microtubule plus end.

the contractile ring

How Cells Build the Contractile Ring

Contractile rings are built from microfilaments and help separate daughter cells during cytokinesis. This ring forms as the cell cycle moves forward, but the exact timing and coordination with other cell cycle events are still not fully understood. RhoA, a small GTPase in the Ras superfamily, controls contractile ring assembly and function. The inactive form of RhoA is bound to GDP. A guanine nucleotide exchange factor, or Rho-GEF, is located in the cortex region, where the next cell division...

determining the plane of cell division

How Cells Set the Division Plane

How cells set the division plane during cell division affects daughter cell size and, in many cases, cell fate. The plane of division is perpendicular to the plane of chromosome segregation. Different organisms use different cues to place it, based on their shape and needs. In animal cells, the cleavage furrow forms along the division plane from the cell cortex, the area just below the plasma membrane. The mitotic spindle is the main guide for this position. If the spindle axis changes, the...

the phragmoplast

How Plant Cells Build a New Wall

Plant cells build a new wall during cytokinesis with help from the phragmoplast. This plant structure forms from the central spindle and related cell parts as the cell finishes dividing. In animal cells, the comparable structure is the midbody, but in plants the phragmoplast expands outward to guide new wall formation. The mature phragmoplast has a donut-like shape. It has an outer leading region, a middle transition zone, and an inner lagging region. New microtubules are assembled...

distribution of cytoplasmic content

How Organelles Are Split During Cytokinesis

Cytokinesis splits a cell’s chromosomes and organelles into two daughter cells. Before cell division, organelles grow and divide. They cannot be made from scratch, so each daughter cell must inherit at least one copy to survive. Many details of this organelle sorting process are still not fully known. The cytoplasm contains organelles, salts, proteins, and water. Small organelles such as peroxisomes and lysosomes can be shared by simple diffusion. Because cells contain many copies of these...

anaphase promoting complex

APC Activates Chromosome Separation

The anaphase-promoting complex, or APC, helps control cell cycle progression by destroying specific proteins at the right time. These proteins are tagged with ubiquitin by ubiquitin ligases and then broken down by the proteasome. The SCF (Skp1/Cullin/F-box) complex and APC are two major ubiquitin ligases involved in this process. SCF stays active throughout the cell cycle, but APC turns on during the metaphase-to-anaphase transition. APC becomes active when Cdc20 or Cdh1 binds to it. These...

key terms and concepts

Explore how microtubules grow, shrink, and switch states through catastrophe, rescue, GTP hydrolysis, and MAP control in cells.

Microtubule Growth and Shrinkage | JoVE K12

molecular biology

JoVE Core Biología Molecular presenta los procesos moleculares de la célula a través de lecciones claras y concisas de animaciones audiovisuales. Además, en los vídeos de científicos en acción, se muestran aplicaciones de estos conceptos mediante experimentos reales en laboratorios especializados.

Microtubule Growth and Shrinkage

Description

Transcript

Tags