Name: how organelles are split during cytokinesis
Uploaded: 2021-04-07T12:12:02.000Z
Duration: 2 min 33 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

Next Generation Science Standards

High School

Life Science

from-molecules-to-organisms-structures-and-processes

From Molecules to Organisms: Structures and Processes

HS-LS1-4

Distribution of Cytoplasmic Content

El citoplasma de una célula contiene muchos orgánulos diferentes. Cada orgánulo difiere en su estructura, función y número de copias; Por lo tanto, una célula tiene que usar estrategias distintas para separar cada tipo de orgánulo correctamente en sus células hijas.
La envoltura nuclear y el retículo endoplásmico están conectados directamente y, por lo tanto, su distribución a las células hijas está acoplada.
En la profase, la envoltura nuclear y las proteínas asociadas se fusionan con el retículo endoplásmico, el retículo endoplásmico en forma de lámina se transforma en una estructura tubular y se reorganiza cerca de la corteza celular durante la metafase.
Después de la segregación cromosómica, el retículo endoplásmico rodea a las cromátidas hermanas y reforma la envoltura nuclear.
En la mitosis, las mitocondrias sufren fisión para producir mitocondrias fragmentadas que se extienden por toda la célula.
Durante la división celular, se cree que estas mitocondrias fragmentadas se distribuyen a las células hijas a través de un proceso estocástico o aleatorio y luego se fusionan para recuperar su forma y tamaño.
Una sola copia del cuerpo de Golgi está presente en la célula, y su distribución equitativa es vital para la supervivencia de la célula. El cuerpo de Golgi se desmonta paso a paso antes de segregarse en las células hijas.
La cinta de Golgi que contiene cisternas apiladas se descompone en múltiples mini pilas, que luego se desmontan en vesículas.
En la anafase, las vesículas de Golgi se fusionan para formar cisternas, que luego se vuelven a apilar. Luego, se forman Golgis gemelos de tamaño pequeño y grande cerca de la parte media del cuerpo y el centrosoma, respectivamente, en la telofase.
Finalmente, durante la citocinesis, los cuerpos gemelos de Golgi más pequeños se fusionan con los más grandes para formar el único cuerpo de Golgi en cada célula hija.
La división simétrica ocurre en la mayoría de las células, donde una célula produce dos células hijas idénticas con el mismo destino.
En algunas células, la división asimétrica se produce cuando hay una herencia desigual de los determinantes del destino celular, lo que resulta en la producción de células hijas no idénticas.
Por ejemplo, las células madre pueden someterse a una división celular asimétrica para producir una célula hija que se comporta como la célula madre madre, mientras que la otra célula hija puede seguir un linaje celular diferente.

<ol>
	<li>Rabouille, Catherine y Eija Jokitalo. "Partición del aparato de Golgi durante la división celular". Biología de membranas moleculares 20, no. 2 (2003): 117-127.</li>
	<li>Yamano, Koji y Richard J. Youle. "Acoplamiento de la división mitocondrial y celular". Nature cell biology 13, no. 9 (2011): 1026.</li>
	<li>McCullough, Simon y John Lucocq. "Posicionamiento y partición del retículo endoplásmico en células mitóticas HeLa". Revista de Anatomía 206, no. 5 (2005): 415-425.</li>
</ol>

distribución del contenido citoplasmático

La citocinesis segrega los cromosomas y orgánulos de una célula en sus células hijas. Los orgánulos se dividen y crecen antes de la división celular, pero no pueden sintetizarse de novo; por lo tanto, las células deben recibir al menos una copia de cada orgánulo para sobrevivir. Actualmente, muchos de los detalles de cómo se distribuyen los orgánulos aún no están del todo dilucidados.

Distribución de determinantes citoplasmáticos.

El citoplasma contiene varios orgánulos, además de sales, proteínas y agua. La distribución de pequeños orgánulos como peroxisomas y lisosomas puede explicarse por difusión simple. Dado que cada célula tiene múltiples copias de cada orgánulo, las células hijas tienen una alta probabilidad de recibir al menos una copia del orgánulo. Sin embargo, la distribución de orgánulos grandes como el RE o el cloroplasto requiere mecanismos conservados evolutivamente más complejos.

Avances recientes en la distribución de los cuerpos de Golgi

El aparato de Golgi se descompone cuando las células entran en mitosis. Dos modelos posibles pueden explicar la distribución del aparato de Golgi en las células hijas. Según el primer modelo, durante la profase, los túbulos de Golgi se escinden y se liberan pequeñas pilas de Golgi. Estos se fragmentan aún más en vesículas y túbulos. Estos grupos mitóticos de Golgi (MGC) se dispersan en el citoplasma y se segregan en las células en división durante la anafase. Los microtúbulos del huso guían la distribución de MGC de forma ordenada. El segundo modelo plantea la hipótesis de que las proteínas y membranas de Golgi se reabsorben en el RE al inicio de la mitosis, lo que permite que el Golgi se separe con el RE.

Avances recientes en la distribución de las mitocondrias.

Las mitocondrias son orgánulos críticos para la supervivencia y el crecimiento celular. Durante la mitosis, las mitocondrias se dividen en fragmentos más pequeños que luego pueden segregarse entre las células hijas. Una proteína conservada DRP1 constriñe la membrana mitocondrial externa y provoca la fisión mitocondrial. La ciclina B-Cdk1 y Aurora-A, dos quinasas mitóticas, regulan la activación de DRP1.

Avances recientes en la distribución del retículo endoplásmico.

El retículo endoplásmico (RE) en interfase es una membrana continua que sintetiza las membranas de los cuerpos de Golgi, los endolisosomas, las vesículas y la membrana plasmática. Durante la mitosis, el RE puede sufrir fragmentación o permanecer como cisternas. En las células HeLa, el RE se mantiene como cisternas y está restringido a la corteza celular. El RE no tiene una distribución uniforme y las cisternas centrales están asociadas con el huso. El RE puede estar adherido a las paredes de la corteza de las células mitóticas antes de distribuirse a las células hijas.

Distribución del contenido citoplasmático

La citocinesis segrega los cromosomas y orgánulos de una célula en sus células hijas. Los orgánulos se dividen y crecen antes de la división celular, pero no pueden ser ...

Education

Educación

JoVE Core

Molecular Biology

Biología Molecular

Unit 2

Unidad 2

Cell Division

División celular

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

TÉRMINOS Y CONCEPTOS CLAVE

how organelles are split during cytokinesis

Cytokinesis splits a cell’s chromosomes and organelles into two daughter cells. Before cell division, organelles grow and divide. They cannot be made from scratch, so each daughter cell must inherit at least one copy to survive. Many details of this organelle sorting process are still not fully known.

The cytoplasm contains organelles, salts, proteins, and water. Small organelles such as peroxisomes and lysosomes can be shared by simple diffusion. Because cells contain many copies of these organelles, each daughter cell has a high chance of getting at least one. Larger organelles, such as the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and chloroplasts, need more complex and conserved mechanisms.

The Golgi apparatus shows one of the best-studied cases. As cells enter mitosis, the Golgi breaks down. One model says the Golgi tubules are cut during prophase, and small stacks are released. These stacks are broken into vesicles and tubules, forming mitotic Golgi clusters, or MGCs, that spread through the cytoplasm and divide during anaphase with help from spindle microtubules. A second model suggests that Golgi proteins and membranes are taken back into the ER at the start of mitosis, so the Golgi is partitioned with the ER.

Mitochondria also change form before they are passed to daughter cells. These organelles are important for cell survival and growth. During mitosis, mitochondria break into smaller pieces by fission, which is the splitting of one organelle into two. The protein DRP1 constricts the outer mitochondrial membrane and drives this process. Two mitotic kinases, Cyclin B-Cdk1 and Aurora-A, regulate DRP1 activity.

The ER can also follow different patterns during mitosis. In interphase, the ER is a continuous membrane that helps make membranes for Golgi bodies, endolysosomes, vesicles, and the plasma membrane. During mitosis, it may fragment or stay as cisternae, which are flattened membrane sacs. In HeLa cells, the ER stays as cisternae and is kept near the cell cortex. The ER is not spread evenly, and the cisternae in the center are linked to the spindle. The ER may be tethered to the cortex wall before it is sorted into the daughter cells.

How Organelles Are Split During Cytokinesis

how-organelles-are-split-during-cytokinesis

mitosis and cytokinesis

Mitosis and Cytokinesis Stages

Mitosis and cytokinesis are the two main steps of cell division. Mitosis is the process that divides the nucleus, while cytokinesis splits the rest of the cell. During mitosis, the cell’s genetic material is separated into two sets. This helps form two new nuclei with the same genetic information. Cytokinesis then completes division by separating the cytoplasm, which creates two daughter cells. These stages work together to make cell division possible in growing and repairing tissues.

duplication of chromatin structure

Chromatin Rebuilding During DNA Replication

Chromatin rebuilding during DNA replication helps cells copy DNA and pass on chromosome structure to daughter cells. During cell division, the genome must be disrupted and then reassembled across the whole chromosome. This process allows chromatin to be inherited, rebuilt, and maintained in new cells. The basic unit of chromatin is the nucleosome. A nucleosome contains DNA wrapped around an octamer of histone proteins, with short linker DNA between neighboring nucleosomes. The histone proteins...

cohesins

Cohesins in Meiosis and Genetic Disorders

Cohesin protein complexes act like molecular glue that keeps sister chromatids together. They are important in both mitosis and meiosis. In mitosis, cohesin complexes are removed from chromosomes before anaphase begins. Meiosis has two rounds of chromosome separation. Meiosis I separates homologous chromosomes, while Meiosis II separates sister chromatids. This process produces four daughter cells. The Meiosis I cohesin complex is made of four subunits: Smc1, Smc3, Rec8, and Scc3. Rec8...

condensins

How Condensins Shape Mitotic Chromosomes

Condensins shape chromosomes during mitosis, the stage when a cell divides. These large protein complexes use ATP, the cell’s energy molecule, to help turn loose post-interphase DNA into compact, separate chromosomes. They organize and segregate chromosomal DNA so it can be passed on correctly. Plant and animal cells contain two condensin complexes: condensin I and condensin II. Each complex has five subunits. Two are SMC, or Structural Maintenance of Chromosomes, subunits. One is a kleisin...

the mitotic spindle

How the Mitotic Spindle Separates Chromosomes

The mitotic spindle is a microtubule-based structure that helps separate chromosomes during cell division. It forms in eukaryotic cells and moves sister chromatids to opposite ends of the parent cell. This leaves each new cell nucleus with the correct genetic material. A bipolar spindle has two poles, and that shape is important for chromosome segregation. In many animal cells, two centrosomes are present when mitosis begins. Each centrosome helps organize a circular set of microtubules at one...

centrosome duplication

Centrosome Duplication in the Cell Cycle

Centrosome duplication is a key part of the animal cell cycle. The centrosome is the main microtubule organizing center, or MTOC, in animal cells. It contains two cylindrical centrioles at its core. Each centriole has nine sets of three microtubules held together by proteins. The two centrioles sit at right angles and are surrounded by the pericentriolar matrix, or PCM, a shapeless protein cloud. Duplication starts early in the cell cycle so each daughter cell can receive a centrosome after...

microtubule instability

Microtubule Growth and Shrinkage

Microtubules are hollow, cylindrical filaments in the cell. They are about 25 nm wide and can range from 200 nm to 25 μm in length. Their main building blocks are GTP-bound tubulin subunits that form αβ-heterodimers, which then assemble into protofilaments. These protofilaments join by lateral bonds to create stable microtubule cylinders. Microtubules are highly dynamic because they repeatedly assemble and break down. They can even grow on one end while shrinking on the other at the same time.

spindle assembly

How the Mitotic Spindle Forms

The mitotic spindle forms through centrosome-mediated, chromatin-mediated, and microtubule-mediated pathways. These pathways often work at the same time. Together, they build a strong spindle apparatus for cell division. In most cells, centrosomes are the main sites where microtubules begin to grow. During the G2 to prophase transition, centrosomes mature and make more microtubules. The growing microtubules extend from both centrosomes, and their plus-ends search for chromosomes by attaching...

attachment of sister chromatids

Kinetochore-Microtubule Binding in Mitosis

Kinetochore-microtubule binding helps chromosomes line up and separate during mitosis. After the nuclear envelope breaks down, condensed chromosomes are exposed to the bipolar microtubules of the mitotic spindle. The kinetochore is a large, disc-shaped protein complex at the centromere region of each sister chromatid, and it serves as the microtubule binding site. Usually, the plus-end of a single microtubule inserts into the kinetochore. In some cases, a kinetochore first makes lateral...

forces acting on chromosomes

Chromosome Movement During Mitosis

Chromosome movement during mitosis depends on several small forces that act at different times and positions in the cell. In prometaphase, these forces help chromosomes move to the equatorial plane and line up at the metaphase plate. Because the forces change with location and stage, chromosome behavior also changes as mitosis continues. Microtubules and motor proteins create two main kinds of force on chromosomes: poleward force and anti-poleward force, also called polar-ejection force.

separation of sister chromatids

Anaphase Start and Chromatid Release

Anaphase starts when sister chromatids are released from one another and pulled toward opposite spindle poles. Before that happens, cohesion along the chromosomal arms is reduced from prophase to metaphase, which helps the sister chromatids resolve. A residual cohesin link still holds them together until the metaphase-to-anaphase transition. This leftover connection helps prevent early separation and reduces the risk of aneuploidy, or the wrong number of chromosomes, in daughter cells. At the...

the spindle assembly checkpoint

How Cells Safeguard Chromosome Separation

The spindle assembly checkpoint helps cells safeguard chromosome separation during anaphase. It acts as a molecular surveillance system. The checkpoint checks whether the steps needed for chromosome segregation are complete before the cell moves on. Many proteins work together to control this checkpoint. If mutations affect these proteins, a cell may enter anaphase too early. Chromosomes can then separate before the needed steps are finished. When this happens, the daughter cells may receive...

anaphase a and b

Chromatid Movement by Microtubule Forces

Chromatid movement during anaphase depends on microtubule forces at the spindle. Kinetochore microtubules grow from the spindle poles, and their plus ends attach to kinetochores on sister chromatids. The kinetochore protein complex Ndc80 makes low-affinity links with the microtubule plus end.

the contractile ring

How Cells Build the Contractile Ring

Contractile rings are built from microfilaments and help separate daughter cells during cytokinesis. This ring forms as the cell cycle moves forward, but the exact timing and coordination with other cell cycle events are still not fully understood. RhoA, a small GTPase in the Ras superfamily, controls contractile ring assembly and function. The inactive form of RhoA is bound to GDP. A guanine nucleotide exchange factor, or Rho-GEF, is located in the cortex region, where the next cell division...

determining the plane of cell division

How Cells Set the Division Plane

How cells set the division plane during cell division affects daughter cell size and, in many cases, cell fate. The plane of division is perpendicular to the plane of chromosome segregation. Different organisms use different cues to place it, based on their shape and needs. In animal cells, the cleavage furrow forms along the division plane from the cell cortex, the area just below the plasma membrane. The mitotic spindle is the main guide for this position. If the spindle axis changes, the...

the phragmoplast

How Plant Cells Build a New Wall

Plant cells build a new wall during cytokinesis with help from the phragmoplast. This plant structure forms from the central spindle and related cell parts as the cell finishes dividing. In animal cells, the comparable structure is the midbody, but in plants the phragmoplast expands outward to guide new wall formation. The mature phragmoplast has a donut-like shape. It has an outer leading region, a middle transition zone, and an inner lagging region. New microtubules are assembled...

distribution of cytoplasmic content

Cytokinesis splits a cell’s chromosomes and organelles into two daughter cells. Before cell division, organelles grow and divide. They cannot be made from scratch, so each daughter cell must inherit at least one copy to survive. Many details of this organelle sorting process are still not fully known. The cytoplasm contains organelles, salts, proteins, and water. Small organelles such as peroxisomes and lysosomes can be shared by simple diffusion. Because cells contain many copies of these...

anaphase promoting complex

APC Activates Chromosome Separation

The anaphase-promoting complex, or APC, helps control cell cycle progression by destroying specific proteins at the right time. These proteins are tagged with ubiquitin by ubiquitin ligases and then broken down by the proteasome. The SCF (Skp1/Cullin/F-box) complex and APC are two major ubiquitin ligases involved in this process. SCF stays active throughout the cell cycle, but APC turns on during the metaphase-to-anaphase transition. APC becomes active when Cdc20 or Cdh1 binds to it. These...

key terms and concepts

Learn how cells distribute organelles during cytokinesis, including the Golgi apparatus, mitochondria, and endoplasmic reticulum in daughter cells.

How Organelles Are Split During Cytokinesis | JoVE K12

molecular biology

JoVE Core Biología Molecular presenta los procesos moleculares de la célula a través de lecciones claras y concisas de animaciones audiovisuales. Además, en los vídeos de científicos en acción, se muestran aplicaciones de estos conceptos mediante experimentos reales en laboratorios especializados.

new-york-state-science-learning-standards

New York State Science Learning Standards

Inheritance and Variation of Traits

HS-LS1-4.

Characteristics of Life

Biology is a natural science that studies life and living organisms, including their structure, function, development, interactions, evolution, ...

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Cell Structure

Background
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What are Cells?

Cell Diversity

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Cytoplasm

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The Nucleus

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The Central Dogma

The DNA Helix

Nucleic Acids

DNA as a Genetic Template

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Conservation of Protein Domains

Transcription

Transcription is the synthesis of RNA from a DNA sequence by RNA polymerase. It is the first step in producing a protein from a gene sequence. ...

Globular and Fibrous Proteins

Translation

Translation is the process of synthesizing proteins from the genetic information carried by messenger RNA (mRNA). Following transcription, it constitutes ...

Intrinsically Disordered Proteins

Ribosomes

Ribosomes translate genetic information encoded by messenger RNA (mRNA) into proteins. Both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells have ribosomes. Cells that ...

Protein Complex Assembly

Protein and Protein Structures

Conjugated Proteins

Proteins: From Genes to Degradation

Amyloid Fibrils

What are Proteins?

Proteins are polymers of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds. Proteins and polypeptides are interchangeably used to refer to long chains of amino ...

Ligand Binding Sites

Protein Organization

Proteins are polymers of amino acid residues. They are versatile and responsible for different cellular functions, including DNA replication, molecular ...

Protein-Protein Interfaces

Protein Folding

Proteins are chains of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds. Upon synthesis, a protein folds into a three-dimensional conformation, critical to ...

Conserved Binding Sites

Cofactors and Coenzymes

Enzymes are proteins made of amino acids. The functional group of each constituent amino acid catalyzes a wide variety of chemical reactions via ionic ...

Cooperative Allosteric Transitions

Protein Kinases and Phosphatases

GTPases and their Regulation

Covalently Linked Protein Regulators

protein-complexes-with-interchangeable-parts

Protein Complexes with Interchangeable Parts

Mechanical Protein Function

Structural Protein Function

Protein Networks

Construct an explanation based on evidence for how the structure of DNA determines the structure of proteins, which carry out the essential functions of life through systems of specialized cells. [Assessment Boundary: Assessment does not include identification of specific cell or tissue types, whole body systems, specific protein structures and functions, or the biochemistry of protein synthesis.]

HS-LS1-1

Levels of Organization

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Animal and Plant Cell Structure

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Structural Organization of the Human Body: An Overview

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Overview of Human Digestion

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Anatomy of the Intestines

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Accessory Organs

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Lipid Digestion

Lipids are large molecules that are generally not water-soluble. Since most of the digestive enzymes in the human body are water-based, there are specific ...

Protein Digestion

Protein digestion begins in the stomach, where the highly acidic environment can easily disrupt protein structure by exposing the peptide bonds of ...

Carbohydrate Digestion

Carbohydrate digestion and metabolism break down simple and complex carbohydrates from food into saccharides (i.e., sugars) for the body to use as energy. ...

What is a Nervous System?

Overview

The nervous system is the collection of specialized cells responsible for maintaining an organism&rsquo;s internal environment and coordinating ...

The Parasympathetic Nervous System

Overview

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The Sympathetic Nervous System

Overview

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Oogenesis

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What is a Sensory System?

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Fertilization

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What is the Skeletal System?

Overview

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An Introduction to the Zebrafish: Danio rerio

Zebrafish (Danio rerio) are small freshwater fish that are used as model organisms for biomedical research. The many strengths of these fish include their ...

Physiology of the Circulatory System

Homeostasis
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Anatomy of the Circulatory System

The human circulatory system consists of blood, blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart, around the body, and back to the heart, and the heart ...

Measuring Blood Pressure
ExpandTo prepare for the blood pressure exercise, simply place the appropriate number of alcohol swabs, sphygmomanometers, and ...

Anatomy of the Heart

The human heart is made up of three layers of tissue that are surrounded by the pericardium, a membrane that protects and confines the heart. The ...

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ExpandBefore starting the experiment go to the front of the room and collect an alcohol swab, a ...

Blood Flow

Blood is pumped by the heart into the aorta, the largest artery in the body, and then into increasingly smaller arteries, arterioles, and capillaries. The ...

Develop and use a model to illustrate the hierarchical organization of interacting systems that provide specific functions within multicellular organisms. [Clarification Statement: Emphasis is on functions at the organism system level such as nutrient uptake, water delivery, and organism movement in response to neural stimuli. An example of an interacting system could be an artery depending on the proper function of elastic tissue and smooth muscle to regulate and deliver the proper amount of blood within the circulatory system.] [Assessment Boundary: Assessment does not include interactions and functions at the molecular or chemical reaction level.]

HS-LS1-2

How Organelles Are Split During Cytokinesis

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