Name: how organelles are split during cytokinesis
Uploaded: 2021-04-07T12:12:02.000Z
Duration: 2 min 33 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

Next Generation Science Standards

High School

Life Science

from-molecules-to-organisms-structures-and-processes

From Molecules to Organisms: Structures and Processes

HS-LS1-4

Distribution of Cytoplasmic Content

Il citoplasma di una cellula contiene molti organelli diversi. Ogni organello differisce per struttura, funzione e numero di copie; Pertanto, una cellula deve utilizzare strategie distinte per separare correttamente ogni tipo di organello nelle sue cellule figlie.
L'involucro nucleare e il reticolo endoplasmatico sono direttamente collegati e quindi la loro distribuzione alle cellule figlie è accoppiata.
Nella profase, l'involucro nucleare e le proteine associate si fondono con il reticolo endoplasmatico. Il reticolo endoplasmatico a forma di foglio si trasforma in una struttura tubolare e si riorganizza vicino alla corteccia cellulare durante la metafase.
Dopo la segregazione cromosomica, il reticolo endoplasmatico circonda i cromatidi fratelli e riforma l'involucro nucleare.
Nella mitosi, i mitocondri subiscono una fissione per produrre mitocondri frammentati che si diffondono in tutta la cellula.
Durante la divisione cellulare, si ritiene che questi mitocondri frammentati vengano distribuiti alle cellule figlie attraverso un processo stocastico o casuale e quindi subiscano la fusione per riacquistare la loro forma e dimensione.
Una singola copia del corpo del Golgi è presente nella cellula e la sua distribuzione uniforme è vitale per la sopravvivenza cellulare. Il corpo del Golgi si disassembla gradualmente prima di segregarsi nelle cellule figlie.
Il nastro del Golgi contenente cisterne impilate si scompone in più mini pile, che vengono poi ulteriormente smontate in vescicole.
In anafase, le vescicole del Golgi subiscono la fusione per formare cisterne, che poi vengono riimpilate. Quindi, i Golgis gemelli di piccole e grandi dimensioni si formano vicino al corpo medio e al centrosoma, rispettivamente, in telofase.
Infine, durante la citochinesi, i corpi gemelli più piccoli del Golgi si fondono con quelli più grandi per formare il singolo corpo del Golgi in ogni cellula figlia.
La divisione simmetrica si verifica nella maggior parte delle cellule in cui una cellula produce due cellule figlie identiche con lo stesso destino.
In alcune cellule, la divisione asimmetrica si verifica dove c'è un'eredità ineguale dei determinanti del destino cellulare, con conseguente produzione di cellule figlie non identiche.
Ad esempio, le cellule staminali possono subire una divisione cellulare asimmetrica per produrre una cellula figlia che si comporta come la cellula staminale madre, mentre l'altra cellula figlia può seguire un lignaggio cellulare diverso.

<ol>
	<li>Rabouille, Catherine e Eija Jokitalo. "Partizione dell'apparato di Golgi durante la divisione cellulare". Biologia molecolare della membrana 20, n. 2 (2003): 117-127.</li>
	<li>Yamano, Koji e Richard J. Youle. "Accoppiamento della divisione mitocondriale e cellulare". Nature cell biology 13, n. 9 (2011): 1026.</li>
	<li>McCullough, Simon e John Lucocq. "Posizionamento e partizione del reticolo endoplasmatico nelle cellule HeLa mitotiche". Giornale di anatomia 206, n. 5 (2005): 415-425.</li>
</ol>

distribuzione del contenuto citoplasmatico

La citocinesi segrega i cromosomi e gli organelli di una cellula nelle sue cellule figlie. Gli organelli si dividono e crescono prima della divisione cellulare, ma non possono essere sintetizzati de novo; pertanto, le cellule devono ricevere almeno una copia di ciascun organello per sopravvivere. Attualmente, molti dettagli su come sono distribuiti gli organelli non sono ancora del tutto chiariti.

Distribuzione dei determinanti citoplasmatici

Il citoplasma contiene vari organelli, oltre a sali, proteine e acqua. La distribuzione di piccoli organelli come perossisomi e lisosomi può essere spiegata dalla semplice diffusione. Poiché ogni cellula ha più copie di ciascun organello, le cellule figlie hanno un'alta probabilità di ricevere almeno una copia dell'organello. Tuttavia, la distribuzione di grandi organelli come l'ER o il cloroplasto richiede meccanismi conservati evolutivamente più complessi.

Recenti progressi nella distribuzione dei corpi di Golgi

L'apparato del Golgi si rompe quando le cellule entrano nella mitosi. Due possibili modelli possono spiegare la distribuzione dell'apparato del Golgi nelle cellule figlie. Secondo il primo modello, durante la profase, i tubuli di Golgi vengono tagliati e vengono rilasciati piccoli accumuli di Golgi. Questi sono ulteriormente frammentati in vescicole e tubuli. Questi cluster mitotici del Golgi (MGC) si disperdono nel citoplasma e si segregano nelle cellule in divisione durante l'anafase. I microtubuli del fuso guidano la distribuzione di MGC in modo ordinato. Il secondo modello ipotizza che le proteine e le membrane del Golgi vengano riassorbite nel RE all'inizio della mitosi, consentendo al Golgi di partizionarsi con il RE.

Recenti progressi nella distribuzione dei mitocondri

I mitocondri sono organelli fondamentali per la sopravvivenza e la crescita cellulare. Durante la mitosi, i mitocondri vengono divisi in frammenti più piccoli, che possono poi separarsi tra le cellule figlie. Una proteina conservata, DRP1, restringe la membrana mitocondriale esterna e provoca la fissione mitocondriale. La ciclina B-Cdk1 e Aurora-A, due chinasi mitotiche, regolano l'attivazione di DRP1.

Recenti progressi nella distribuzione del reticolo endoplasmatico

Il reticolo endoplasmatico interfase (ER) è una membrana continua che sintetizza le membrane per i corpi del Golgi, gli endolisosomi, le vescicole e la membrana plasmatica. Durante la mitosi, l'ER può subire frammentazione o rimanere come cisterne. Nelle cellule HeLa, l'ER è mantenuto come cisterne ed è limitato alla corteccia cellulare. L'ER è distribuito in modo non uniforme e le cisterne centrali sono associate al fuso. L'ER può essere legato alle pareti della corteccia della cellula mitotica prima di essere distribuito alle cellule figlie.

Distribuzione del contenuto citoplasmatico

La citocinesi segrega i cromosomi e gli organelli di una cellula nelle sue cellule figlie. Gli organelli si dividono e crescono prima della divisione cellulare, ma non possono essere ...

Education

Didattica

JoVE Core

Molecular Biology

Biologia Molecolare

Unit 2

Unità 2

Cell Division

Divisione cellulare

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

TERMINI E CONCETTI CHIAVE

how organelles are split during cytokinesis

Cytokinesis splits a cell’s chromosomes and organelles into two daughter cells. Before cell division, organelles grow and divide. They cannot be made from scratch, so each daughter cell must inherit at least one copy to survive. Many details of this organelle sorting process are still not fully known.

The cytoplasm contains organelles, salts, proteins, and water. Small organelles such as peroxisomes and lysosomes can be shared by simple diffusion. Because cells contain many copies of these organelles, each daughter cell has a high chance of getting at least one. Larger organelles, such as the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and chloroplasts, need more complex and conserved mechanisms.

The Golgi apparatus shows one of the best-studied cases. As cells enter mitosis, the Golgi breaks down. One model says the Golgi tubules are cut during prophase, and small stacks are released. These stacks are broken into vesicles and tubules, forming mitotic Golgi clusters, or MGCs, that spread through the cytoplasm and divide during anaphase with help from spindle microtubules. A second model suggests that Golgi proteins and membranes are taken back into the ER at the start of mitosis, so the Golgi is partitioned with the ER.

Mitochondria also change form before they are passed to daughter cells. These organelles are important for cell survival and growth. During mitosis, mitochondria break into smaller pieces by fission, which is the splitting of one organelle into two. The protein DRP1 constricts the outer mitochondrial membrane and drives this process. Two mitotic kinases, Cyclin B-Cdk1 and Aurora-A, regulate DRP1 activity.

The ER can also follow different patterns during mitosis. In interphase, the ER is a continuous membrane that helps make membranes for Golgi bodies, endolysosomes, vesicles, and the plasma membrane. During mitosis, it may fragment or stay as cisternae, which are flattened membrane sacs. In HeLa cells, the ER stays as cisternae and is kept near the cell cortex. The ER is not spread evenly, and the cisternae in the center are linked to the spindle. The ER may be tethered to the cortex wall before it is sorted into the daughter cells.

How Organelles Are Split During Cytokinesis

how-organelles-are-split-during-cytokinesis

mitosis and cytokinesis

Mitosis and Cytokinesis Stages

Mitosis and cytokinesis are the two main steps of cell division. Mitosis is the process that divides the nucleus, while cytokinesis splits the rest of the cell. During mitosis, the cell’s genetic material is separated into two sets. This helps form two new nuclei with the same genetic information. Cytokinesis then completes division by separating the cytoplasm, which creates two daughter cells. These stages work together to make cell division possible in growing and repairing tissues.

duplication of chromatin structure

Chromatin Rebuilding During DNA Replication

Chromatin rebuilding during DNA replication helps cells copy DNA and pass on chromosome structure to daughter cells. During cell division, the genome must be disrupted and then reassembled across the whole chromosome. This process allows chromatin to be inherited, rebuilt, and maintained in new cells. The basic unit of chromatin is the nucleosome. A nucleosome contains DNA wrapped around an octamer of histone proteins, with short linker DNA between neighboring nucleosomes. The histone proteins...

cohesins

Cohesins in Meiosis and Genetic Disorders

Cohesin protein complexes act like molecular glue that keeps sister chromatids together. They are important in both mitosis and meiosis. In mitosis, cohesin complexes are removed from chromosomes before anaphase begins. Meiosis has two rounds of chromosome separation. Meiosis I separates homologous chromosomes, while Meiosis II separates sister chromatids. This process produces four daughter cells. The Meiosis I cohesin complex is made of four subunits: Smc1, Smc3, Rec8, and Scc3. Rec8...

condensins

How Condensins Shape Mitotic Chromosomes

Condensins shape chromosomes during mitosis, the stage when a cell divides. These large protein complexes use ATP, the cell’s energy molecule, to help turn loose post-interphase DNA into compact, separate chromosomes. They organize and segregate chromosomal DNA so it can be passed on correctly. Plant and animal cells contain two condensin complexes: condensin I and condensin II. Each complex has five subunits. Two are SMC, or Structural Maintenance of Chromosomes, subunits. One is a kleisin...

the mitotic spindle

How the Mitotic Spindle Separates Chromosomes

The mitotic spindle is a microtubule-based structure that helps separate chromosomes during cell division. It forms in eukaryotic cells and moves sister chromatids to opposite ends of the parent cell. This leaves each new cell nucleus with the correct genetic material. A bipolar spindle has two poles, and that shape is important for chromosome segregation. In many animal cells, two centrosomes are present when mitosis begins. Each centrosome helps organize a circular set of microtubules at one...

centrosome duplication

Centrosome Duplication in the Cell Cycle

Centrosome duplication is a key part of the animal cell cycle. The centrosome is the main microtubule organizing center, or MTOC, in animal cells. It contains two cylindrical centrioles at its core. Each centriole has nine sets of three microtubules held together by proteins. The two centrioles sit at right angles and are surrounded by the pericentriolar matrix, or PCM, a shapeless protein cloud. Duplication starts early in the cell cycle so each daughter cell can receive a centrosome after...

microtubule instability

Microtubule Growth and Shrinkage

Microtubules are hollow, cylindrical filaments in the cell. They are about 25 nm wide and can range from 200 nm to 25 μm in length. Their main building blocks are GTP-bound tubulin subunits that form αβ-heterodimers, which then assemble into protofilaments. These protofilaments join by lateral bonds to create stable microtubule cylinders. Microtubules are highly dynamic because they repeatedly assemble and break down. They can even grow on one end while shrinking on the other at the same time.

spindle assembly

How the Mitotic Spindle Forms

The mitotic spindle forms through centrosome-mediated, chromatin-mediated, and microtubule-mediated pathways. These pathways often work at the same time. Together, they build a strong spindle apparatus for cell division. In most cells, centrosomes are the main sites where microtubules begin to grow. During the G2 to prophase transition, centrosomes mature and make more microtubules. The growing microtubules extend from both centrosomes, and their plus-ends search for chromosomes by attaching...

attachment of sister chromatids

Kinetochore-Microtubule Binding in Mitosis

Kinetochore-microtubule binding helps chromosomes line up and separate during mitosis. After the nuclear envelope breaks down, condensed chromosomes are exposed to the bipolar microtubules of the mitotic spindle. The kinetochore is a large, disc-shaped protein complex at the centromere region of each sister chromatid, and it serves as the microtubule binding site. Usually, the plus-end of a single microtubule inserts into the kinetochore. In some cases, a kinetochore first makes lateral...

forces acting on chromosomes

Chromosome Movement During Mitosis

Chromosome movement during mitosis depends on several small forces that act at different times and positions in the cell. In prometaphase, these forces help chromosomes move to the equatorial plane and line up at the metaphase plate. Because the forces change with location and stage, chromosome behavior also changes as mitosis continues. Microtubules and motor proteins create two main kinds of force on chromosomes: poleward force and anti-poleward force, also called polar-ejection force.

separation of sister chromatids

Anaphase Start and Chromatid Release

Anaphase starts when sister chromatids are released from one another and pulled toward opposite spindle poles. Before that happens, cohesion along the chromosomal arms is reduced from prophase to metaphase, which helps the sister chromatids resolve. A residual cohesin link still holds them together until the metaphase-to-anaphase transition. This leftover connection helps prevent early separation and reduces the risk of aneuploidy, or the wrong number of chromosomes, in daughter cells. At the...

the spindle assembly checkpoint

How Cells Safeguard Chromosome Separation

The spindle assembly checkpoint helps cells safeguard chromosome separation during anaphase. It acts as a molecular surveillance system. The checkpoint checks whether the steps needed for chromosome segregation are complete before the cell moves on. Many proteins work together to control this checkpoint. If mutations affect these proteins, a cell may enter anaphase too early. Chromosomes can then separate before the needed steps are finished. When this happens, the daughter cells may receive...

anaphase a and b

Chromatid Movement by Microtubule Forces

Chromatid movement during anaphase depends on microtubule forces at the spindle. Kinetochore microtubules grow from the spindle poles, and their plus ends attach to kinetochores on sister chromatids. The kinetochore protein complex Ndc80 makes low-affinity links with the microtubule plus end.

the contractile ring

How Cells Build the Contractile Ring

Contractile rings are built from microfilaments and help separate daughter cells during cytokinesis. This ring forms as the cell cycle moves forward, but the exact timing and coordination with other cell cycle events are still not fully understood. RhoA, a small GTPase in the Ras superfamily, controls contractile ring assembly and function. The inactive form of RhoA is bound to GDP. A guanine nucleotide exchange factor, or Rho-GEF, is located in the cortex region, where the next cell division...

determining the plane of cell division

How Cells Set the Division Plane

How cells set the division plane during cell division affects daughter cell size and, in many cases, cell fate. The plane of division is perpendicular to the plane of chromosome segregation. Different organisms use different cues to place it, based on their shape and needs. In animal cells, the cleavage furrow forms along the division plane from the cell cortex, the area just below the plasma membrane. The mitotic spindle is the main guide for this position. If the spindle axis changes, the...

the phragmoplast

How Plant Cells Build a New Wall

Plant cells build a new wall during cytokinesis with help from the phragmoplast. This plant structure forms from the central spindle and related cell parts as the cell finishes dividing. In animal cells, the comparable structure is the midbody, but in plants the phragmoplast expands outward to guide new wall formation. The mature phragmoplast has a donut-like shape. It has an outer leading region, a middle transition zone, and an inner lagging region. New microtubules are assembled...

distribution of cytoplasmic content

Cytokinesis splits a cell’s chromosomes and organelles into two daughter cells. Before cell division, organelles grow and divide. They cannot be made from scratch, so each daughter cell must inherit at least one copy to survive. Many details of this organelle sorting process are still not fully known. The cytoplasm contains organelles, salts, proteins, and water. Small organelles such as peroxisomes and lysosomes can be shared by simple diffusion. Because cells contain many copies of these...

anaphase promoting complex

APC Activates Chromosome Separation

The anaphase-promoting complex, or APC, helps control cell cycle progression by destroying specific proteins at the right time. These proteins are tagged with ubiquitin by ubiquitin ligases and then broken down by the proteasome. The SCF (Skp1/Cullin/F-box) complex and APC are two major ubiquitin ligases involved in this process. SCF stays active throughout the cell cycle, but APC turns on during the metaphase-to-anaphase transition. APC becomes active when Cdc20 or Cdh1 binds to it. These...

key terms and concepts

Learn how cells distribute organelles during cytokinesis, including the Golgi apparatus, mitochondria, and endoplasmic reticulum in daughter cells.

How Organelles Are Split During Cytokinesis | JoVE K12

molecular biology

Le video animazioni di JoVE Core Molecular Biology, organizzate in video lezioni, illustrano i processi molecolari cellulari in maniera chiara e concisa. Inoltre, nei video di "scienziati in azione", i concetti scientifici vengono applicati e dimostrati da ricercatori attraverso esperimenti in laboratorio.

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Inheritance and Variation of Traits

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Characteristics of Life

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GTPases and their Regulation

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Protein Complexes with Interchangeable Parts

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Construct an explanation based on evidence for how the structure of DNA determines the structure of proteins, which carry out the essential functions of life through systems of specialized cells. [Assessment Boundary: Assessment does not include identification of specific cell or tissue types, whole body systems, specific protein structures and functions, or the biochemistry of protein synthesis.]

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Develop and use a model to illustrate the hierarchical organization of interacting systems that provide specific functions within multicellular organisms. [Clarification Statement: Emphasis is on functions at the organism system level such as nutrient uptake, water delivery, and organism movement in response to neural stimuli. An example of an interacting system could be an artery depending on the proper function of elastic tissue and smooth muscle to regulate and deliver the proper amount of blood within the circulatory system.] [Assessment Boundary: Assessment does not include interactions and functions at the molecular or chemical reaction level.]

HS-LS1-2

How Organelles Are Split During Cytokinesis

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