Name: how organelles are split during cytokinesis
Uploaded: 2021-04-07T12:12:02.000Z
Duration: 2 min 33 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

Next Generation Science Standards

High School

Life Science

from-molecules-to-organisms-structures-and-processes

From Molecules to Organisms: Structures and Processes

HS-LS1-4

Distribution of Cytoplasmic Content

세포의 세포질에는 다양한 세포소기관이 포함되어 있습니다. 각 소기관은 구조, 기능 및 복제 수가 다릅니다. 그러므로, 세포는 각 세포 기관 유형을 딸 세포로 적절하게 분리하기 위해 뚜렷한 전략을 사용해야 합니다.
핵막과 소포체는 직접 연결되어 있으므로 딸 세포로의 분포가 결합되어 있습니다.
전단계(prophase)에서, 핵막(nuclear envelope) 및 관련 단백질은 소포체(endoplasmic reticulum)와 합쳐집니다.시트(sheet)와 같은 소포체(endoplasmic reticulum)는 관 모양으로 변형되어 중기(metaphase) 동안 세포 피질 근처에서 스스로를 재조직합니다.
염색체 분리 후, 소포체는 자매 염색체를 둘러싸고 핵막을 재형성합니다.
유사분열에서 미토콘드리아는 세포 전체에 퍼져 있는 조각난 미토콘드리아를 생성하기 위해 분열을 겪습니다.
세포 분열 과정에서 이러한 단편화된 미토콘드리아는 확률적 또는 무작위 과정을 통해 딸 세포에 분포한 다음 융합을 거쳐 모양과 크기를 회복하는 것으로 여겨집니다.
골지체의 단일 사본이 세포에 존재하며, 골지체의 균등한 분포는 세포 생존에 필수적입니다. 골지체는 딸세포로 분리되기 전에 단계적으로 분해됩니다.
적층된 수조를 포함하는 골지 리본은 여러 개의 미니 스택으로 분해된 다음 소포로 더 분해됩니다.
anaphase에서 Golgi vesicles는 융합을 거쳐 수조를 형성한 다음 다시 쌓입니다. 그런 다음, 작은 크기와 큰 크기의 쌍둥이 골지스(twin Golgis)는 텔로페이즈(telophase)에서 각각 중체(midbody)와 중심체(centrosome) 근처에서 형성됩니다.
마지막으로, 사이토키네시스(cytokinesis) 동안에는 더 작은 쌍둥이 골지체가 더 큰 쌍둥이 골지체와 합쳐져 각 딸 세포에서 단일 골지체를 형성합니다.
대칭 분열은 대부분의 세포에서 발생하며, 세포는 동일한 운명을 가진 두 개의 동일한 딸 세포를 생산합니다.
일부 세포에서는 세포 운명 결정 요인의 불균등한 유전이 있는 곳에서 비대칭 분열이 발생하여 동일하지 않은 딸 세포가 생성됩니다.
예를 들어, 줄기세포는 비대칭 세포 분열을 거쳐 부모 줄기 세포처럼 행동하는 딸 세포 하나를 생산할 수 있고, 다른 딸 세포는 다른 세포 계통을 따를 수 있습니다.

<ol>
	<li>Rabouille, Catherine 및 Eija Jokitalo. "세포 분열 중 골지 장치 분할." 분자 막 생물학 20, no. 2 (2003) : 117-127.</li>
	<li>야마노, 코지, 리처드 J. 욜. "커플링 미토콘드리아와 세포 분열." Nature cell biology 13, no. 9 (2011): 1026.</li>
	<li>McCullough, Simon 및 John Lucocq. "유사분열 HeLa 세포의 소포체 위치 지정 및 분할." Journal of Anatomy 206, no. 5 (2005): 415-425.</li>
</ol>

세포질 함량 분포

세포질 분열은 세포의 염색체와 세포소기관을 딸세포로 분리합니다. 세포 소기관은 세포 분열 전에 분열하고 성장하지만 새로 합성될 수는 없습니다. 따라서 세포가 생존하려면 각 소기관의 복사본을 최소한 하나 이상 받아야 합니다. 현재, 소기관이 어떻게 분포되는지에 대한 많은 세부 사항은 아직 완전히 밝혀지지 않았습니다.

세포질 결정인자의 분포

세포질에는 염분, 단백질 및 물뿐만 아니라 다양한 세포 소기관이 포함되어 있습니다. 퍼옥시좀이나 리소좀과 같은 작은 소기관의 분포는 단순 확산으로 설명할 수 있습니다. 각 세포에는 각 소기관의 여러 복사본이 있으므로 딸세포는 적어도 하나의 소기관 복사본을 받을 가능성이 높습니다. 그러나 ER이나 엽록체와 같은 큰 세포 소기관의 분포에는 더 복잡하고 진화적으로 보존된 메커니즘이 필요합니다.

골지체 분포의 최근 발전

골지체는 세포가 유사분열에 들어갈 때 분해됩니다. 두 가지 가능한 모델이 골지체의 딸세포 분포를 설명할 수 있습니다. 첫 번째 모델에 따르면 전기 단계 동안 골지 세뇨관이 절단되고 작은 골지 덩어리가 방출됩니다. 이는 소포와 세뇨관으로 더 세분화됩니다. 이러한 유사분열 골지 클러스터(MGC)는 세포질로 분산되어 후기 동안 분열 세포로 분리됩니다. 스핀들 미세소관은 MGC의 분포를 순서대로 안내합니다. 두 번째 모델은 유사분열이 시작될 때 골지 단백질과 막이 ER에서 재흡수되어 골지가 ER과 분할될 수 있다는 가설을 세웁니다.

미토콘드리아 분포의 최근 발전

미토콘드리아는 세포 생존과 성장에 중요한 세포 소기관입니다. 유사분열 동안 미토콘드리아는 더 작은 조각으로 나뉘어 딸세포 사이에서 분리될 수 있습니다. 보존된 단백질 DRP1은 미토콘드리아 외부 막을 수축시켜 미토콘드리아 분열을 일으킵니다. 두 개의 유사분열 키나제인 Cyclin B-Cdk1과 Aurora-A는 DRP1의 활성화를 조절합니다.

소포체 분포의 최근 발전

간기 소포체(ER)는 골지체, 엔도리소좀, 소포 및 원형질막의 막을 합성하는 연속 막입니다. 유사분열 동안 소포체는 단편화되거나 수조로 남아 있을 수 있습니다. HeLa 세포에서 소포체는 물통으로 유지되며 세포 피질로 제한됩니다. 소포체는 불균일하게 분포되어 있으며 중앙 수조는 스핀들과 연결되어 있습니다. 소포체는 딸세포에 분배되기 전에 유사분열 세포 피질의 벽에 묶여 있을 수 있습니다.

사이토키네시스(Cytokinesis)는 세포의 염색체와 세포소기관을 딸세포(daughter cell)로 분리합니다. 세포 소기관은 세포 분열 전에 분열하고 성장하지만 ...

Education

교육

JoVE Core

Molecular Biology

분자생물학

Unit 2

제2단원

Cell Division

세포 분열

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

주요 용어 및 개념

how organelles are split during cytokinesis

Cytokinesis splits a cell’s chromosomes and organelles into two daughter cells. Before cell division, organelles grow and divide. They cannot be made from scratch, so each daughter cell must inherit at least one copy to survive. Many details of this organelle sorting process are still not fully known.

The cytoplasm contains organelles, salts, proteins, and water. Small organelles such as peroxisomes and lysosomes can be shared by simple diffusion. Because cells contain many copies of these organelles, each daughter cell has a high chance of getting at least one. Larger organelles, such as the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and chloroplasts, need more complex and conserved mechanisms.

The Golgi apparatus shows one of the best-studied cases. As cells enter mitosis, the Golgi breaks down. One model says the Golgi tubules are cut during prophase, and small stacks are released. These stacks are broken into vesicles and tubules, forming mitotic Golgi clusters, or MGCs, that spread through the cytoplasm and divide during anaphase with help from spindle microtubules. A second model suggests that Golgi proteins and membranes are taken back into the ER at the start of mitosis, so the Golgi is partitioned with the ER.

Mitochondria also change form before they are passed to daughter cells. These organelles are important for cell survival and growth. During mitosis, mitochondria break into smaller pieces by fission, which is the splitting of one organelle into two. The protein DRP1 constricts the outer mitochondrial membrane and drives this process. Two mitotic kinases, Cyclin B-Cdk1 and Aurora-A, regulate DRP1 activity.

The ER can also follow different patterns during mitosis. In interphase, the ER is a continuous membrane that helps make membranes for Golgi bodies, endolysosomes, vesicles, and the plasma membrane. During mitosis, it may fragment or stay as cisternae, which are flattened membrane sacs. In HeLa cells, the ER stays as cisternae and is kept near the cell cortex. The ER is not spread evenly, and the cisternae in the center are linked to the spindle. The ER may be tethered to the cortex wall before it is sorted into the daughter cells.

How Organelles Are Split During Cytokinesis

how-organelles-are-split-during-cytokinesis

mitosis and cytokinesis

Mitosis and Cytokinesis Stages

Mitosis and cytokinesis are the two main steps of cell division. Mitosis is the process that divides the nucleus, while cytokinesis splits the rest of the cell. During mitosis, the cell’s genetic material is separated into two sets. This helps form two new nuclei with the same genetic information. Cytokinesis then completes division by separating the cytoplasm, which creates two daughter cells. These stages work together to make cell division possible in growing and repairing tissues.

duplication of chromatin structure

Chromatin Rebuilding During DNA Replication

Chromatin rebuilding during DNA replication helps cells copy DNA and pass on chromosome structure to daughter cells. During cell division, the genome must be disrupted and then reassembled across the whole chromosome. This process allows chromatin to be inherited, rebuilt, and maintained in new cells. The basic unit of chromatin is the nucleosome. A nucleosome contains DNA wrapped around an octamer of histone proteins, with short linker DNA between neighboring nucleosomes. The histone proteins...

cohesins

Cohesins in Meiosis and Genetic Disorders

Cohesin protein complexes act like molecular glue that keeps sister chromatids together. They are important in both mitosis and meiosis. In mitosis, cohesin complexes are removed from chromosomes before anaphase begins. Meiosis has two rounds of chromosome separation. Meiosis I separates homologous chromosomes, while Meiosis II separates sister chromatids. This process produces four daughter cells. The Meiosis I cohesin complex is made of four subunits: Smc1, Smc3, Rec8, and Scc3. Rec8...

condensins

How Condensins Shape Mitotic Chromosomes

Condensins shape chromosomes during mitosis, the stage when a cell divides. These large protein complexes use ATP, the cell’s energy molecule, to help turn loose post-interphase DNA into compact, separate chromosomes. They organize and segregate chromosomal DNA so it can be passed on correctly. Plant and animal cells contain two condensin complexes: condensin I and condensin II. Each complex has five subunits. Two are SMC, or Structural Maintenance of Chromosomes, subunits. One is a kleisin...

the mitotic spindle

How the Mitotic Spindle Separates Chromosomes

The mitotic spindle is a microtubule-based structure that helps separate chromosomes during cell division. It forms in eukaryotic cells and moves sister chromatids to opposite ends of the parent cell. This leaves each new cell nucleus with the correct genetic material. A bipolar spindle has two poles, and that shape is important for chromosome segregation. In many animal cells, two centrosomes are present when mitosis begins. Each centrosome helps organize a circular set of microtubules at one...

centrosome duplication

Centrosome Duplication in the Cell Cycle

Centrosome duplication is a key part of the animal cell cycle. The centrosome is the main microtubule organizing center, or MTOC, in animal cells. It contains two cylindrical centrioles at its core. Each centriole has nine sets of three microtubules held together by proteins. The two centrioles sit at right angles and are surrounded by the pericentriolar matrix, or PCM, a shapeless protein cloud. Duplication starts early in the cell cycle so each daughter cell can receive a centrosome after...

microtubule instability

Microtubule Growth and Shrinkage

Microtubules are hollow, cylindrical filaments in the cell. They are about 25 nm wide and can range from 200 nm to 25 μm in length. Their main building blocks are GTP-bound tubulin subunits that form αβ-heterodimers, which then assemble into protofilaments. These protofilaments join by lateral bonds to create stable microtubule cylinders. Microtubules are highly dynamic because they repeatedly assemble and break down. They can even grow on one end while shrinking on the other at the same time.

spindle assembly

How the Mitotic Spindle Forms

The mitotic spindle forms through centrosome-mediated, chromatin-mediated, and microtubule-mediated pathways. These pathways often work at the same time. Together, they build a strong spindle apparatus for cell division. In most cells, centrosomes are the main sites where microtubules begin to grow. During the G2 to prophase transition, centrosomes mature and make more microtubules. The growing microtubules extend from both centrosomes, and their plus-ends search for chromosomes by attaching...

attachment of sister chromatids

Kinetochore-Microtubule Binding in Mitosis

Kinetochore-microtubule binding helps chromosomes line up and separate during mitosis. After the nuclear envelope breaks down, condensed chromosomes are exposed to the bipolar microtubules of the mitotic spindle. The kinetochore is a large, disc-shaped protein complex at the centromere region of each sister chromatid, and it serves as the microtubule binding site. Usually, the plus-end of a single microtubule inserts into the kinetochore. In some cases, a kinetochore first makes lateral...

forces acting on chromosomes

Chromosome Movement During Mitosis

Chromosome movement during mitosis depends on several small forces that act at different times and positions in the cell. In prometaphase, these forces help chromosomes move to the equatorial plane and line up at the metaphase plate. Because the forces change with location and stage, chromosome behavior also changes as mitosis continues. Microtubules and motor proteins create two main kinds of force on chromosomes: poleward force and anti-poleward force, also called polar-ejection force.

separation of sister chromatids

Anaphase Start and Chromatid Release

Anaphase starts when sister chromatids are released from one another and pulled toward opposite spindle poles. Before that happens, cohesion along the chromosomal arms is reduced from prophase to metaphase, which helps the sister chromatids resolve. A residual cohesin link still holds them together until the metaphase-to-anaphase transition. This leftover connection helps prevent early separation and reduces the risk of aneuploidy, or the wrong number of chromosomes, in daughter cells. At the...

the spindle assembly checkpoint

How Cells Safeguard Chromosome Separation

The spindle assembly checkpoint helps cells safeguard chromosome separation during anaphase. It acts as a molecular surveillance system. The checkpoint checks whether the steps needed for chromosome segregation are complete before the cell moves on. Many proteins work together to control this checkpoint. If mutations affect these proteins, a cell may enter anaphase too early. Chromosomes can then separate before the needed steps are finished. When this happens, the daughter cells may receive...

anaphase a and b

Chromatid Movement by Microtubule Forces

Chromatid movement during anaphase depends on microtubule forces at the spindle. Kinetochore microtubules grow from the spindle poles, and their plus ends attach to kinetochores on sister chromatids. The kinetochore protein complex Ndc80 makes low-affinity links with the microtubule plus end.

the contractile ring

How Cells Build the Contractile Ring

Contractile rings are built from microfilaments and help separate daughter cells during cytokinesis. This ring forms as the cell cycle moves forward, but the exact timing and coordination with other cell cycle events are still not fully understood. RhoA, a small GTPase in the Ras superfamily, controls contractile ring assembly and function. The inactive form of RhoA is bound to GDP. A guanine nucleotide exchange factor, or Rho-GEF, is located in the cortex region, where the next cell division...

determining the plane of cell division

How Cells Set the Division Plane

How cells set the division plane during cell division affects daughter cell size and, in many cases, cell fate. The plane of division is perpendicular to the plane of chromosome segregation. Different organisms use different cues to place it, based on their shape and needs. In animal cells, the cleavage furrow forms along the division plane from the cell cortex, the area just below the plasma membrane. The mitotic spindle is the main guide for this position. If the spindle axis changes, the...

the phragmoplast

How Plant Cells Build a New Wall

Plant cells build a new wall during cytokinesis with help from the phragmoplast. This plant structure forms from the central spindle and related cell parts as the cell finishes dividing. In animal cells, the comparable structure is the midbody, but in plants the phragmoplast expands outward to guide new wall formation. The mature phragmoplast has a donut-like shape. It has an outer leading region, a middle transition zone, and an inner lagging region. New microtubules are assembled...

distribution of cytoplasmic content

Cytokinesis splits a cell’s chromosomes and organelles into two daughter cells. Before cell division, organelles grow and divide. They cannot be made from scratch, so each daughter cell must inherit at least one copy to survive. Many details of this organelle sorting process are still not fully known. The cytoplasm contains organelles, salts, proteins, and water. Small organelles such as peroxisomes and lysosomes can be shared by simple diffusion. Because cells contain many copies of these...

anaphase promoting complex

APC Activates Chromosome Separation

The anaphase-promoting complex, or APC, helps control cell cycle progression by destroying specific proteins at the right time. These proteins are tagged with ubiquitin by ubiquitin ligases and then broken down by the proteasome. The SCF (Skp1/Cullin/F-box) complex and APC are two major ubiquitin ligases involved in this process. SCF stays active throughout the cell cycle, but APC turns on during the metaphase-to-anaphase transition. APC becomes active when Cdc20 or Cdh1 binds to it. These...

key terms and concepts

Learn how cells distribute organelles during cytokinesis, including the Golgi apparatus, mitochondria, and endoplasmic reticulum in daughter cells.

How Organelles Are Split During Cytokinesis | JoVE K12

molecular biology

JoVE Core 분자생물학은 명확하고 간결한 애니메이션을 통해 분자 단계에서 일어나는 세포 과정을 설명합니다.또한, 과학자가 직접 실험을 진행하는 실사 영상을 통해 분자생물학 개념의 응용 사례를 보여줍니다.

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New York State Science Learning Standards

Inheritance and Variation of Traits

HS-LS1-4.

Characteristics of Life

Biology is a natural science that studies life and living organisms, including their structure, function, development, interactions, evolution, ...

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Cell Structure

Background
Cells represent the most basic biological units of all organisms, whether it be simple, single-celled organisms like bacteria, or large, ...

Visualizing Onion and Cheek Cells
ExpandImmediately before the experiment, wash and peel onion bulbs for the class.
Remove the entire brown outer skin and ...

Visualizing Onion and Human Cells
ExpandIn this experiment you will prepare different types of cells from a plant and animal, onion and human ...

What are Cells?

Cell Diversity

The concept of a cell started with microscopic observations of dead cork tissue by Robert Hooke in 1665. Hooke coined the term &#34;cell&#34; based on the ...

Cytoplasm

The cytoplasm consists of organelles and a framework of protein scaffolds called the cytoskeleton suspended in an aqueous solution, the cytosol. The ...

The Nucleus

The nucleus is a membrane-bound organelle that acts as a control center in a eukaryotic cell. It contains chromosomal DNA, which controls gene expression ...

The Central Dogma

The DNA Helix

Nucleic Acids

DNA as a Genetic Template

Structure of a Gene

A gene is the fundamental unit of heredity. Every individual has two copies of each gene, one inherited from each parent. Although most people contain the ...

Chromosome Structure

Base-pairing and DNA Repair

What is Gene Expression?

A gene is a stretch of DNA that serves as the blueprint for functional RNAs and proteins. Since DNA is comprised&#160; of nucleotides and proteins are ...

RNA Structure

The basic structure of RNA consists of a string of ribonucleotides attached by phosphodiester bonds. Although most RNA is single-stranded, it can form ...

Protein Families

Types of RNA

Three main types of RNA are involved in protein synthesis: messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), and ribosomal RNA (rRNA). These RNAs perform diverse ...

Conservation of Protein Domains

Transcription

Transcription is the synthesis of RNA from a DNA sequence by RNA polymerase. It is the first step in producing a protein from a gene sequence. ...

Globular and Fibrous Proteins

Translation

Translation is the process of synthesizing proteins from the genetic information carried by messenger RNA (mRNA). Following transcription, it constitutes ...

Intrinsically Disordered Proteins

Ribosomes

Ribosomes translate genetic information encoded by messenger RNA (mRNA) into proteins. Both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells have ribosomes. Cells that ...

Protein Complex Assembly

Protein and Protein Structures

Conjugated Proteins

Proteins: From Genes to Degradation

Amyloid Fibrils

What are Proteins?

Proteins are polymers of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds. Proteins and polypeptides are interchangeably used to refer to long chains of amino ...

Ligand Binding Sites

Protein Organization

Proteins are polymers of amino acid residues. They are versatile and responsible for different cellular functions, including DNA replication, molecular ...

Protein-Protein Interfaces

Protein Folding

Proteins are chains of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds. Upon synthesis, a protein folds into a three-dimensional conformation, critical to ...

Conserved Binding Sites

Cofactors and Coenzymes

Enzymes are proteins made of amino acids. The functional group of each constituent amino acid catalyzes a wide variety of chemical reactions via ionic ...

Cooperative Allosteric Transitions

Protein Kinases and Phosphatases

GTPases and their Regulation

Covalently Linked Protein Regulators

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Protein Complexes with Interchangeable Parts

Mechanical Protein Function

Structural Protein Function

Protein Networks

Construct an explanation based on evidence for how the structure of DNA determines the structure of proteins, which carry out the essential functions of life through systems of specialized cells. [Assessment Boundary: Assessment does not include identification of specific cell or tissue types, whole body systems, specific protein structures and functions, or the biochemistry of protein synthesis.]

HS-LS1-1

Levels of Organization

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Animal and Plant Cell Structure

Animal and plant cells not only differ in their structure, function, and mode of nutrition but also in how they reproduce, specialize, and organize into ...

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Structural Organization of the Human Body: An Overview

It is convenient to consider the body&#39;s structures in terms of fundamental levels of organization that increase in complexity: subatomic particles, ...

Overview of Human Digestion

The human body contains a monogastric digestive system. In a monogastric digestive system, the stomach only contains one chamber in which it digests food. ...

Anatomy of the Intestines

Although digestion of proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids may begin in the stomach, it is completed in the intestine. The absorption of nutrients, water, ...

Accessory Organs

Accessory organs are those that participate in the digestion of food but do not come into direct contact with it like the mouth, stomach, or intestine do. ...

Lipid Digestion

Lipids are large molecules that are generally not water-soluble. Since most of the digestive enzymes in the human body are water-based, there are specific ...

Protein Digestion

Protein digestion begins in the stomach, where the highly acidic environment can easily disrupt protein structure by exposing the peptide bonds of ...

Carbohydrate Digestion

Carbohydrate digestion and metabolism break down simple and complex carbohydrates from food into saccharides (i.e., sugars) for the body to use as energy. ...

What is a Nervous System?

Overview

The nervous system is the collection of specialized cells responsible for maintaining an organism&rsquo;s internal environment and coordinating ...

The Parasympathetic Nervous System

Overview

The parasympathetic nervous system is one of the two major divisions of the autonomic nervous system. This parasympathetic system is responsible ...

The Sympathetic Nervous System

Overview

The sympathetic nervous system&mdash;one of the two major divisions of the autonomic nervous system&mdash;is activated in times of stress. It ...

Oogenesis

In human women, oogenesis produces one mature egg cell or ovum for every precursor cell that enters meiosis. This process differs in two unique ways from ...

What is a Sensory System?

Sensory systems detect stimuli&mdash;such as light and sound waves&mdash;and transduce them into neural signals that can be interpreted by the nervous ...

Fertilization

During fertilization, an egg and sperm cell fuse to create a new diploid structure. In humans, the process occurs once the egg has been released from the ...

What is the Skeletal System?

Overview

The adult human skeleton comprises 206 bones that are connected through cartilage, tendons, and ligaments. The skeleton provides a rigid ...

an-introduction-to-the-zebrafish-danio-rerio

An Introduction to the Zebrafish: Danio rerio

Zebrafish (Danio rerio) are small freshwater fish that are used as model organisms for biomedical research. The many strengths of these fish include their ...

Physiology of the Circulatory System

Homeostasis
Conditions in the external environment of an organism can change rapidly and drastically. To survive, organisms must maintain a fairly ...

Anatomy of the Circulatory System

The human circulatory system consists of blood, blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart, around the body, and back to the heart, and the heart ...

Measuring Blood Pressure
ExpandTo prepare for the blood pressure exercise, simply place the appropriate number of alcohol swabs, sphygmomanometers, and ...

Anatomy of the Heart

The human heart is made up of three layers of tissue that are surrounded by the pericardium, a membrane that protects and confines the heart. The ...

Measuring Circulatory System Function in Humans
ExpandBefore starting the experiment go to the front of the room and collect an alcohol swab, a ...

Blood Flow

Blood is pumped by the heart into the aorta, the largest artery in the body, and then into increasingly smaller arteries, arterioles, and capillaries. The ...

Develop and use a model to illustrate the hierarchical organization of interacting systems that provide specific functions within multicellular organisms. [Clarification Statement: Emphasis is on functions at the organism system level such as nutrient uptake, water delivery, and organism movement in response to neural stimuli. An example of an interacting system could be an artery depending on the proper function of elastic tissue and smooth muscle to regulate and deliver the proper amount of blood within the circulatory system.] [Assessment Boundary: Assessment does not include interactions and functions at the molecular or chemical reaction level.]

HS-LS1-2

How Organelles Are Split During Cytokinesis

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