Mitochondrial dysfunction is a hallamark feature of many neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s disease, and is often marked by impaired oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS). Functional assessment of individual OXPHOS complexes using combinations of Krebs cycle intermediates (e.g., succinate, pyruvate) and electron transport chain (ETC) inhibitors (e.g., rotenone, oligomycin, antimycin A) is well established in isolated mitochondria derived from cortical or hippocampal tissues. However, translating these assessments to intact cells is challenging due to the selective permeability of the plasma membrane—intact cells are impermeable to many TCA cycle substrates but remain permeable to OXPHOS inhibitors. Furthermore, cytosolic factors such as tubulin can regulate mitochondrial function by modulating voltage-dependent anion channel 1 (VDAC1)-mediated transport, interactions that are absent in isolated mitochondria. Therefore, preserving cellular integrity is essential for evaluating mitochondrial function in a physiologically relevant context.
This article presents a method that uses a reversible plasma membrane permeabilizer to allow controlled delivery of specific metabolic substrates to mitochondria in situ, while preserving organelle structure and cytosolic interactions. Using cultured neuroblastoma cells and the Seahorse XF flux analyzer, this protocol enables sequential analysis of electron flow through distinct ETC complexes and evaluation of the coupling efficiency between the ETC and OXPHOS machinery. This technique provides a reliable and reproducible platform for investigating mitochondrial bioenergetics in neurodegenerative disease models without compromising cellular architecture. It bridges the gap between traditional isolated mitochondrial assays and whole-cell measurements, offering a more physiologically relevant assessment of mitochondrial function under disease-relevant conditions.


Method to Analyze Respiratory Complex Function in Situ Using Substrate-Inhibitor Combinations & Membrane Permeabilizer Without Harming Cell Integrity

The authors acknowledge the St. Boniface Hospital Research, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Canada; and Nova Southeastern University (NSU), Fort Lauderdale, Florida, USA, for providing funding and infrastructure support. The authors also acknowledge Alzo Biosciences, San Diego, California and Capillus, Miami, Florida, USA for funding support.

1. Thawing and initial plating
NOTE: The base medium for BE(2)-C cells is a 1:1 mixture of ATCC-formulated Eagle&#39;s Minimum Essential Medium and F12 Medium, supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum (FBS).
<ol>
	<li>Thaw frozen BE(2)-C cells from a cryovial in a 37 &#176;C water bath. Once thawed, centrifuge the cells 200 &#215; g for 5 min to remove the cryoprotectant.</li>
	<li>Resuspend the cell pellet in complete growth medium and plate the cells in a 10 cm cell culture dish. Incubate the culture at 37 &#176;C in a humidified incubator with 5% CO&#8322; in air until the cells reach sub-confluency.</li>
</ol>
2. Subculturing
<ol>
	<li>Subculture the cells for 2&#8211;3 passages to ensure they reach a stable exponential growth phase.</li>
</ol>
3. Trypsinization and single-cell suspension preparation
<ol>
	<li>When the culture reaches 60&#8211;80% confluency, trypsinize the cells. Pass the cell suspension several times through fine-tip transfer pipettes with polished tips to dissociate clumps and achieve a single-cell suspension.</li>
	<li>Add fresh medium containing FBS to neutralize the trypsin. Centrifuge the cells at 200 &#215; g for 5 min to pellet them.</li>
</ol>
4. Cell seeding protocol for 24-well cell culture microplates used in extracellular flux analyzer
<ol>
	<li>Resuspend the pellet in complete medium at a final concentration of 10,000 cells per 100 &#181;L per well.</li>
	<li>Seed the cells at an optimized density to ensure they reach full confluency within 1&#8211;2 days. Leave either the four corner wells or a single corner well empty, depending on the experimental design. These wells will serve as background controls. 
	NOTE: This may require trial and error, including adjustments to media volume and timing.</li>
	<li>Monitor the culture for changes in media color&#8212;yellowing indicates a drop in pH and necessitates immediate replacement with fresh medium to maintain cell health.</li>
</ol>
5. Preparation for extracellular flux analyzer-based assay
NOTE: The coupling and electron flow assay formats used here follow established microplate-based mitochondrial respiration workflows7, with modifications including permeabilization of BE(2)-C cells using digitonin titration and muscarinic ligand treatment conditions.
<ol>
	<li>Prepare stock solutions and 2x Mitochondrial Assay Solution (MAS). Prepare 2x MAS mixes and working reagent (substrates and inhibitors) stock solutions (see Table 1, Table 2, and Table 3) in advance.</li>
	<li>Store all stock solutions and MAS at -20 &#176;C for future use, allowing for efficient assay setup. 
	&#8203;SAFETY: Rotenone, antimycin A, oligomycin, FCCP, digitonin, and TMPD are hazardous and should be handled in accordance with institutional safety guidelines. All inhibitor stock solutions should be prepared and handled in a certified chemical fume hood while wearing appropriate personal protective equipment (lab coat, nitrile gloves, and eye protection). Solutions containing these reagents, as well as DMSO-containing waste, should be collected and disposed of as hazardous chemical waste according to institutional and local regulations. Work surfaces should be decontaminated after use.</li>
	<li>Hydrating the sensor cartridge
	<ol>
		<li>The night before the experiment, hydrate the extracellular flux analyzer sensor cartridge by adding 1 mL of sensor cartridge calibration buffer or phosphate-buffered saline (PBS, pH 7.4) to each well. Let the sensor cartridge sit overnight (12&#8211;18 h) at room temperature (20&#8211;25 &#176;C). 
		&#8203;NOTE: Incubation in a non-CO&#8322; incubator at 37 &#176;C is not necessary, as the cartridge will equilibrate to room temperature during the loading process. Once placed in the extracellular flux analyzer for calibration, the cartridge will reach 37 &#176;C within approximately 15 min.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
6. Day of the experiment
NOTE: Prepare all solutions fresh, adjust pH if necessary, and keep on ice until use.
<ol>
	<li>Thaw frozen substrate stocks and 2x MAS at room temperature (20&#8211;25 &#176;C) for 15&#8211;30 min or in a 37 &#176;C water bath for 5&#8211;10 min.</li>
	<li>Prepare all substrate and injection solutions (see Table 4, Table 5, Table 6, and Table 7) and verify that the pH is at 7.4. Adjust if necessary and keep the solutions on ice until use. Use Table 4 and Table 5 for the coupling assay. For electron flow assay, use Table 6 and Table 7.</li>
	<li>Load the inhibitors and substrates into the appropriate sensor cartridge ports and prepare to run the assay. Depending on the type of assay&#8212;coupling assay or electron flow assay 7 &#8212;refer to Table 4 and Table 5 or Table 6 and Table 7, respectively, as needed.</li>
	<li>Prepare all substrate and inhibitor working solutions to defined final volumes (bulk mixes: 15 mL; cartridge injection mixes: 2 mL per port). Calculate concentrations to achieve the desired final in-well concentrations after injection (final well volume: 700 &#181;L after Port D).</li>
	<li>Add 450 &#181;L of the prepared assay solution to each well of the 24-well extracellular flux analyzer plate containing muscarinic ligands (final ligand concentration: 1 &#181;M; total well volume: 500 &#181;L). Ensure each well already contains 50 &#181;L of 1x MAS buffer and submerged cells. 
	NOTE: Perform this step immediately before loading the plate into the analyzer.</li>
	<li>Load 50 &#181;L of each prepared reagent into the corresponding injection port of the sensor cartridge.</li>
</ol>
7. Instrument programming and Assay execution
<ol>
	<li>Turn on the extracellular flux analyzer at least 1&#8211;2 h before the experiment to allow the internal incubator to stabilize at 37 &#176;C. Maintain the chamber at 37 &#176;C throughout calibration and the assay run.</li>
	<li>Program the analyzer to perform the appropriate mix, wait, and measurement cycles according to Table 8.</li>
	<li>Label wells and experimental groups in the software according to the experimental design.</li>
	<li>Start the assay run. Allow the instrument to calibrate the sensor cartridge (~15 min).</li>
	<li>Prepare the assay plate for loading during cartridge calibration. Delay loading if necessary; the sensor cartridge will remain stable at 37 &#176;C inside the instrument.</li>
	<li>Complete the assay when the final measurement cycle after Port D injection finishes. Proceed immediately to post-assay normalization and data analysis.</li>
</ol>
8. Cell plate preparation for extracellular flux analyzer assay
<ol>
	<li>Begin preparing the cell plate immediately after placing the sensor cartridge into the analyzer for calibration. Add 700 &#181;L of 1x MAS buffer to each well containing adherent cells. Incubate at room temperature (20&#8211;25 &#176;C) for 1 min.</li>
	<li>Carefully aspirate the buffer without disturbing attached cells. Repeat the wash step for at least 3 x 1 min to remove residual culture medium and complete all washes within 10 min.</li>
	<li>Add 50 &#181;L of 1x MAS buffer to a designated background well (no cells) to establish a visual volume reference.</li>
	<li>Aspirate buffer from experimental wells, leaving approximately 50 &#181;L of residual buffer in each well.</li>
	<li>Incubate the plate at 37 &#176;C in a water bath, keeping the plate above the water surface to prevent evaporation. Maintain at 37 &#176;C for 10 min (maximum 20 min) before loading.</li>
	<li>Immediately before loading the plate, add 450 &#181;L of 1x MAS buffer containing the appropriate substrates to each well to reach a final volume of 500 &#181;L.</li>
	<li>Insert the plate into the extracellular flux analyzer.</li>
</ol>
9. End of assay and data analysis
<ol>
	<li>Remove the cell plate and sensor cartridge from the analyzer after completion of the run.</li>
	<li>Normalize OCR values per well using total protein quantification or total cell counts. Lyse cells with RIPA buffer and quantify total protein using the Bradford assay or another spectrophotometric protein assay.</li>
	<li>Normalize OCR values using the analysis software and export data as needed.</li>
	<li>Apply the following acceptance criteria: confirm baseline OCR stability (&#8804;15% drift across two consecutive measurement cycles) and confirm &#8805;60% OCR reduction following rotenone, oligomycin, or antimycin A injection.</li>
	<li>Exclude runs that fail these criteria and re-optimize permeabilizer concentration or cell seeding density as needed.</li>
</ol>
10. Exporting results
<ol>
	<li>Insert a USB drive into the instrument.</li>
	<li>Export the assay data.</li>
</ol>
11. Data processing
<ol>
	<li>Analyze data using the instrument software.</li>
	<li>Export processed data in formats compatible with analysis software of choice for further analysis and visualization.</li>
</ol>

<ol><li>Yin, Y., Shen, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Common+methods+in+mitochondrial+research+%28review%29%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Int+J+Mol+Med%22%5BJournal%5D)">Common methods in mitochondrial research (review).</a> Int J Mol Med. 50 (4), 148(2022).</li>
<li>Walsh, M. A., Musci, R. V., Jacobs, R. A., Hamilton, K. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((A+practical+perspective+on+how+to+develop%2C+implement%2C+execute%2C+and+reproduce+high-resolution+respirometry+experiments%3A+the+physiologist%27s+guide+to+an+Oroboros+O2k%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22FASEB+J%22%5BJournal%5D)">A practical perspective on how to develop, implement, execute, and reproduce high-resolution respirometry experiments: the physiologist's guide to an Oroboros O2k.</a> FASEB J. 37 (12), e23280(2023).</li>
<li>Severinghaus, J. W., Astrup, P. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((History+of+blood+gas+analysis.+IV.+Leland+Clark%27s+oxygen+electrode%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22J+Clin+Monit%22%5BJournal%5D)">History of blood gas analysis. IV. Leland Clark's oxygen electrode.</a> J Clin Monit. 2 (2), 125-139 (1986).</li>
<li>Gnaiger, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Mitochondrial+pathways+and+respiratory+control%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Drug-induced+mitochondrial+dysfunction%22%5BJournal%5D)">Mitochondrial pathways and respiratory control.</a> Drug-induced mitochondrial dysfunction. , 325-352 (2008).</li>
<li>Chance, B., Williams, G. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((A+simple+and+rapid+assay+of+oxidative+phosphorylation%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Nature%22%5BJournal%5D)">A simple and rapid assay of oxidative phosphorylation.</a> Nature. 175 (4469), 1120-1121 (1955).</li>
<li>Gu, X., Ma, Y., Liu, Y., Wan, Q. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Measurement+of+mitochondrial+respiration+in+adherent+cells+by+Seahorse+XF96+cell+mito+stress+test%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22STAR+Protoc%22%5BJournal%5D)">Measurement of mitochondrial respiration in adherent cells by Seahorse XF96 cell mito stress test.</a> STAR Protoc. 2 (1), 100245(2021).</li>
<li>Rogers, G. W., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((High+throughput+microplate+respiratory+measurements+using+minimal+quantities+of+isolated+mitochondria%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22PLoS+One%22%5BJournal%5D)">High throughput microplate respiratory measurements using minimal quantities of isolated mitochondria.</a> PLoS One. 6 (7), e21746(2011).</li>
<li>Subczynski, W. K., Pasenkiewicz-Gierula, M., Widomska, J., Mainali, L., Raguz, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((High+cholesterol%2Flow+cholesterol%3A+effects+in+biological+membranes%3A+a+review%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Cell+Biochem+Biophys%22%5BJournal%5D)">High cholesterol/low cholesterol: effects in biological membranes: a review.</a> Cell Biochem Biophys. 75 (3-4), 369-385 (2017).</li>
<li>Pesta, D., Gnaiger, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((High-resolution+respirometry%3A+OXPHOS+protocols+for+human+cells+and+permeabilized+fibers+from+small+biopsies+of+human+muscle%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Methods+Mol+Biol%22%5BJournal%5D)">High-resolution respirometry: OXPHOS protocols for human cells and permeabilized fibers from small biopsies of human muscle.</a> Methods Mol Biol. 810, 25-58 (2012).</li>
<li>Fan, H. Y., Heerklotz, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Digitonin+does+not+flip+across+cholesterol-poor+membranes%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22J+Colloid+Interface+Sci%22%5BJournal%5D)">Digitonin does not flip across cholesterol-poor membranes.</a> J Colloid Interface Sci. 504, 283-293 (2017).</li>
<li>Sabbir, M. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Cholinergic+receptor+muscarinic+1+co-localized+with+mitochondria+in+cultured+dorsal+root+ganglion+neurons%2C+and+its+deletion+disrupted+mitochondrial+ultrastructure+in+peripheral+neurons%3A+implications+in+Alzheimer%27s+disease%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22J+Alzheimers+Dis%22%5BJournal%5D)">Cholinergic receptor muscarinic 1 co-localized with mitochondria in cultured dorsal root ganglion neurons, and its deletion disrupted mitochondrial ultrastructure in peripheral neurons: implications in Alzheimer's disease.</a> J Alzheimers Dis. 98 (1), 247-264 (2024).</li>
<li>Sabbir, M. G., Swanson, M., Speth, R. C., Albensi, B. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Hippocampal+versus+cortical+deletion+of+cholinergic+receptor+muscarinic+1+in+mice+differentially+affects+post-translational+modifications+and+supramolecular+assembly+of+respiratory+chain-associated+proteins%2C+mitochondrial+ultrastructure%2C+and+respiration%3A+implications+in+Alzheimer%27s+disease%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Front+Cell+Dev+Biol%22%5BJournal%5D)">Hippocampal versus cortical deletion of cholinergic receptor muscarinic 1 in mice differentially affects post-translational modifications and supramolecular assembly of respiratory chain-associated proteins, mitochondrial ultrastructure, and respiration: implications in Alzheimer's disease.</a> Front Cell Dev Biol. 11, 1100854(2023).</li>
<li>Sabbir, M. G., Swanson, M., Albensi, B. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Loss+of+cholinergic+receptor+muscarinic+1+impairs+cortical+mitochondrial+structure+and+function%3A+implications+in+Alzheimer%27s+disease%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Front+Cell+Dev+Biol%22%5BJournal%5D)">Loss of cholinergic receptor muscarinic 1 impairs cortical mitochondrial structure and function: implications in Alzheimer's disease.</a> Front Cell Dev Biol. 11, 1158604(2023).</li>
<li>Sabbir, M. G., Fernyhough, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Muscarinic+receptor+antagonists+activate+ERK-CREB+signaling+to+augment+neurite+outgrowth+of+adult+sensory+neurons%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Neuropharmacology%22%5BJournal%5D)">Muscarinic receptor antagonists activate ERK-CREB signaling to augment neurite outgrowth of adult sensory neurons.</a> Neuropharmacology. 143, 268-281 (2018).</li>
<li>Sabbir, M. G., Taylor, C. G., Zahradka, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((CAMKK2+regulates+mitochondrial+function+by+controlling+succinate+dehydrogenase+expression%2C+post-translational+modification%2C+megacomplex+assembly%2C+and+activity+in+a+cell-type-specific+manner%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Cell+Commun+Signal%22%5BJournal%5D)">CAMKK2 regulates mitochondrial function by controlling succinate dehydrogenase expression, post-translational modification, megacomplex assembly, and activity in a cell-type-specific manner.</a> Cell Commun Signal. 19 (1), 98(2021).</li>
<li>Sabbir, M. G., Calcutt, N. A., Fernyhough, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Muscarinic+acetylcholine+type+1+receptor+activity+constrains+neurite+outgrowth+by+inhibiting+microtubule+polymerization+and+mitochondrial+trafficking+in+adult+sensory+neurons%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Front+Neurosci%22%5BJournal%5D)">Muscarinic acetylcholine type 1 receptor activity constrains neurite outgrowth by inhibiting microtubule polymerization and mitochondrial trafficking in adult sensory neurons.</a> Front Neurosci. 12, 402(2018).</li>
<li>Facino, R. M., Carini, M., Stefani, R., Aldini, G., Saibene, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Anti-elastase+and+anti-hyaluronidase+activities+of+saponins+and+sapogenins+from+Hedera+helix%2C+Aesculus+hippocastanum%2C+and+Ruscus+aculeatus%3A+factors+contributing+to+their+efficacy+in+the+treatment+of+venous+insufficiency%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Arch+Pharm+%28Weinheim%29%22%5BJournal%5D)">Anti-elastase and anti-hyaluronidase activities of saponins and sapogenins from Hedera helix, Aesculus hippocastanum, and Ruscus aculeatus: factors contributing to their efficacy in the treatment of venous insufficiency.</a> Arch Pharm (Weinheim). 328 (10), 720-724 (1995).</li>
<li>Dervishi, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Sterols+govern+membrane+susceptibility+to+saponin-induced+lysis%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22bioRxiv%22%5BJournal%5D)">Sterols govern membrane susceptibility to saponin-induced lysis.</a> bioRxiv. , (2025).</li>
<li>Mhada, M., Metougui, M. L., El Hazzam, K., El Kacimi, K., Yasri, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Variations+of+saponins%2C+minerals+and+total+phenolic+compounds+due+to+processing+and+cooking+of+quinoa+%28Chenopodium+quinoa+Willd.%29+seeds%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Foods%22%5BJournal%5D)">Variations of saponins, minerals and total phenolic compounds due to processing and cooking of quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) seeds.</a> Foods. 9 (5), 660(2020).</li>
<li>Fasciani, I., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((The+C-terminus+of+the+prototypical+M2+muscarinic+receptor+localizes+to+the+mitochondria+and+regulates+cell+respiration+under+stress+conditions%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22PLoS+Biol%22%5BJournal%5D)">The C-terminus of the prototypical M2 muscarinic receptor localizes to the mitochondria and regulates cell respiration under stress conditions.</a> PLoS Biol. 22 (4), e3002582(2024).</li>
<li>Skok, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Mitochondrial+nicotinic+acetylcholine+receptors%3A+mechanisms+of+functioning+and+biological+significance%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Int+J+Biochem+Cell+Biol%22%5BJournal%5D)">Mitochondrial nicotinic acetylcholine receptors: mechanisms of functioning and biological significance.</a> Int J Biochem Cell Biol. 143, 106138(2022).</li>
<li>Felmlee, M. A., Jones, R. S., Rodriguez-Cruz, V., Follman, K. E., Morris, M. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Monocarboxylate+transporters+%28SLC16%29%3A+function%2C+regulation%2C+and+role+in+health+and+disease%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Pharmacol+Rev%22%5BJournal%5D)">Monocarboxylate transporters (SLC16): function, regulation, and role in health and disease.</a> Pharmacol Rev. 72 (2), 466-485 (2020).</li>
<li>Wohlrab, C., Phillips, E., Dachs, G. U. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Vitamin+C+transporters+in+cancer%3A+current+understanding+and+gaps+in+knowledge%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Front+Oncol%22%5BJournal%5D)">Vitamin C transporters in cancer: current understanding and gaps in knowledge.</a> Front Oncol. 7, 74(2017).</li>
<li>Rovini, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Tubulin-VDAC+interaction%3A+molecular+basis+for+mitochondrial+dysfunction+in+chemotherapy-induced+peripheral+neuropathy%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Front+Physiol%22%5BJournal%5D)">Tubulin-VDAC interaction: molecular basis for mitochondrial dysfunction in chemotherapy-induced peripheral neuropathy.</a> Front Physiol. 10, 671(2019).</li>
<li>Heuck, A. P., Moe, P. C., Johnson, B. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((The+cholesterol-dependent+cytolysin+family+of+gram-positive+bacterial+toxins%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Subcell+Biochem%22%5BJournal%5D)">The cholesterol-dependent cytolysin family of gram-positive bacterial toxins.</a> Subcell Biochem. 51, 551-577 (2010).</li>
<li>Murase, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=((Cytolysin+A+%28ClyA%29%3A+a+bacterial+virulence+factor+with+potential+applications+in+nanopore+technology%2C+vaccine+development%2C+and+tumor+therapy%5BTitle%5D)+AND+%22Toxins+%28Basel%29%22%5BJournal%5D)">Cytolysin A (ClyA): a bacterial virulence factor with potential applications in nanopore technology, vaccine development, and tumor therapy.</a> Toxins (Basel). 14 (2), 107(2022).</li>
</ol>

The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare.

This study introduces a rapid and cost-effective protocol for evaluating muscarinic ligand-mediated modulation of OXPHOS in cultured neuroblastoma cells. By employing the selective plasma membrane permeabilizer digitonin, in combination with defined substrate-inhibitor pairs, we enabled targeted delivery of metabolic substrates such as succinate directly to mitochondria in situ. This approach overcomes the limitations of intact cell membranes, which typically restrict access to key TCA cycle intermediates. Importantly, the protocol preserves cellular architecture and cytosolic interactions, offering a physiologically relevant platform for assessing mitochondrial function under various experimental conditions, including drug treatments relevant to neurodegenerative disease models.
The most important determinant of success is empirical optimization of digitonin concentration for the specific cell type and seeding density. In support of this cell&#8209;type dependence, we have observed that the optimal digitonin concentration varies substantially across different cell types. For example, HEK293 cells showed maximal succinate&#8209;supported Complex II&#8211;IV respiration at approximately 15&#160;&#181;M digitonin, whereas cultured rat DRG neurons exhibited optimal responses at ~10&#160;&#181;M. These observations reinforce that digitonin must be empirically titrated for each cell type and seeding density to ensure selective permeabilization without compromising mitochondrial integrity. Acceptable permeabilization is indicated by increased access to non&#8211;cell-permeant substrates (e.g., a clear rise in succinate-supported OCR), while preserving mitochondrial functional responsiveness (e.g., expected OCR decreases after rotenone/Oligomycin/antimycin A and preserved Complex IV&#8211;driven respiration with ascorbate/TMPD). Over-permeabilization is suggested by abrupt OCR collapse or loss of inhibitor-sensitivity. Unstable OCR traces commonly reflect temperature drift, poor cell adherence, or incomplete buffer exchange and can be minimized by reducing time outside 37 &#176;C conditions and using consistent wash handling. If respiration drops sharply after the addition of digitonin, the permeabilizer concentration is likely excessive and should be re-titrated downward; additionally, reduce mixing intensity and confirm fresh substrate preparation. An absent or blunted ADP response may result from insufficient substrate supply, incorrect ADP preparation, or suboptimal phosphate availability in the assay buffer; verify reagent stocks and confirm that baseline respiration is substrate&#8209;supported before ADP injection. FCCP responses should be empirically titrated to an optimal uncoupler concentration, as overuncoupling can reduce OCR and should be corrected by lowering FCCP concentration or shortening exposure time.
Although digitonin was used here, selective plasma membrane permeabilization can also be achieved using saponin, and the choice of permeabilizer should be guided by the experimental objective, cell type, and the desired balance between plasma membrane permeabilization and preservation of mitochondrial integrity. Digitonin is widely used because it forms complexes with cholesterol, which is enriched in the plasma membrane but relatively low in mitochondrial membranes8, thereby enabling preferential permeabilization of the plasma membrane when appropriately titrated. This cholesterol dependence provides a mechanistic basis for digitonin&#8217;s selectivity and, at optimized concentrations, supports robust substrate&#8209;supported OCR responses while maintaining inhibitor sensitivity and preserved Complex IV activity as operational indicators of intact mitochondria. In addition, digitonin has been reported to show limited transbilayer &#8220;flip&#8209;flop&#8221; across cholesterol&#8209;poor membranes10, consistent with a tendency to preferentially act at cholesterol&#8209;rich membranes rather than readily redistributing across intracellular membranes under optimized conditions. In contrast, saponin is a mixture of glycosides17 that also interacts with membrane sterols18 and is commonly used to permeabilize plasma membranes in permeabilized&#8209;cell respiration workflows. However, saponin preparations can vary by source and batch19, which may affect effective potency and the concentration range separating selective permeabilization from over&#8209;permeabilization. Consequently, if saponin is selected, empirical titration and acceptance criteria (e.g., stable baseline OCR, expected responses to ADP/oligomycin/FCCP, and preserved ascorbate/TMPD&#8209;driven respiration) remain essential, just as with digitonin. Practically, digitonin is often preferred for adherent monolayer extracellular flux assays because small concentration differences can be systematically titrated and reproduced across plates, whereas saponin may be advantageous in some settings where users have established cell&#8209;type&#8209;specific performance or where different permeability characteristics are desired. Importantly, regardless of the permeabilizer selected, the key principle is to define a &#8220;working window&#8221; that enables entry of otherwise membrane&#8209;impermeant substrates (e.g., succinate) while preserving mitochondrial functional responsiveness and inhibitor&#8209;sensitive OCR behavior.
Acetylcholine receptor localization in mitochondria remains an active area of investigation. We previously reported that Chrm1 may associate with mitochondria in neurons, based on co&#8209;localization and co&#8209;migration of N&#8209;terminal GFP&#8209;tagged CHRM1 with mitochondria in live, cultured primary mouse DRG neurons11, together with marked mitochondrial ultrastructural abnormalities in Chrm1&#8722;/&#8722; DRG neurons12,13. Recent work has also demonstrated that a C&#8209;terminal fragment derived from CHRM2 (M2 tail) can be selectively sorted to mitochondria and regulate respiration, particularly under stress conditions20, indicating that muscarinic receptor&#8211;derived sequences can influence mitochondrial bioenergetics through non&#8209;canonical mechanisms. Importantly, these observations are not mutually exclusive and may reflect receptor&#8209;subtype&#8209;, cell&#8209;type&#8209;, or context&#8209;dependent differences in muscarinic receptor processing and mitochondrial targeting. In parallel, mitochondrial localization of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs)&#8212;including &#945;7&#8209;containing receptors&#8212;has been well documented. Neuronal&#8209;type nAChRs have been detected at the outer mitochondrial membrane, where they regulate cytochrome&#8209;c release, reactive O2 species production, and mitochondrial signaling in an ion&#8209;independent manner21. Thus, in permeabilized&#8209;cell assays, acetylcholine may influence mitochondrial respiration not only indirectly via cytosolic signaling but also through direct engagement of mitochondrial nicotinic receptors, an interaction that would be minimized or absent in non&#8209;permeabilized cells.
Although we use muscarinic ligands here as a demonstration case, this approach can be applied to other receptor systems and signaling inputs, including additional GPCR agonists/antagonists, peptide hormones, cytokines, and other permeant or cell-impermeant modulators, provided that appropriate controls are incorporated. In particular, because OCR is a functional readout of O2 flux rather than a direct measure of upstream signaling intermediates, ligand-associated OCR changes should be interpreted as evidence of altered mitochondrial respiratory behavior (e.g., coupling, leak, or maximal capacity) rather than proof of a specific receptor-proximal mechanism. Practical controls to support receptor-specific interpretation include: (i) vehicle and time-matched controls, (ii) receptor expression verification and/or pharmacologic specificity controls (e.g., subtype-selective antagonists), (iii) assessment of cell viability and membrane integrity under permeabilized conditions, and (iv) inclusion of a non-mitochondrial OCR definition (e.g., Rotenone and antimycin A&#8211;insensitive OCR) to ensure changes reflect mitochondrial respiration.
The coupling assay revealed differential effects of muscarinic ligands on mitochondrial respiration (Figure 2). Muscarinic agonists (acetylcholine and pirenzepine14) modestly enhanced basal Complex II&#8211;IV-mediated respiration, whereas the antagonist atropine significantly reduced it. Both State 3 and State 3u respiration declined under ligand treatment compared to vehicle control, with a more pronounced reduction observed in antagonist-treated cells. These findings suggest that muscarinic receptor activation and inhibition exert opposing effects on mitochondrial bioenergetics, likely through distinct signaling pathways that modulate the coupling efficiency between electron transport and ATP synthesis. In contrast, the electron flow assay showed no significant differences in mitochondrial respiration across ligand treatments, indicating that muscarinic ligands may not directly affect the electron transfer through the ETC (Figure 3). Instead, their impact appears to be more pronounced on the coupling between substrate oxidation and ATP production. Notably, succinate-driven respiration was significantly enhanced in permeabilized cells, while pyruvate/malate- and ascorbate/TMPD-driven respiration remained unaffected by permeabilization. This suggests that BE(2)-C cells may possess endogenous transport mechanisms for pyruvate and ascorbate, such as monocarboxylate transporters (MCTs)22 and solute carrier family members (e.g., SVCTs and GLUTs)23, which facilitate substrate entry independent of membrane permeabilization. Overall, this protocol provides a versatile system for studying G-protein-coupled receptor (GPCR)-mediated modulation of mitochondrial bioenergetics. It can be adapted to other cell types and experimental contexts, including disease models and pharmacological screening.
This method advances mitochondrial research by bridging the gap between isolated mitochondrial assays and whole-cell measurements. Traditional approaches often compromise mitochondrial integrity and exclude cytosolic regulators such as tubulin, which modulates voltage-dependent anion channel 1 (VDAC1)24. In contrast, this protocol maintains organelle structure and function while allowing precise control over substrate delivery. The integration of extracellular flux analyzer technology further enhances the method&#8217;s utility by enabling high-throughput, multiparametric analysis of OCR across distinct respiratory states&#8212;ideal for screening pharmacological agents or genetic perturbations.
Compared to other permeabilizers, digitonin offers a selective and less cytotoxic alternative. For instance, Cytolysin A (ClyA), a bacterial pore-forming toxin, induces apoptosis and DNA fragmentation, limiting its utility in mitochondrial assays. ClyA monomers bind to the plasma membrane, oligomerize into ring-like pre-pore complexes, and insert &#945;-helices into the lipid bilayer, resulting in hemolysis-like cell lysis25,26. Commercial reagents like extracellular flux analyzer Plasma Membrane Permeabilizer (PMP) offer similar functionality but lack transparency regarding composition. Digitonin&#8217;s cholesterol-dependent selectivity makes it a reliable tool for controlled permeabilization, with saponin serving as a potential alternative depending on cell type and experimental needs.
Although the present protocol is demonstrated using a 24&#8209;well extracellular flux format, the same substrate&#8211;inhibitor logic and permeabilization strategy can be implemented in 96&#8209;well plates for higher&#8209;throughput screening. When adapting to a different plate format, the key requirement is to preserve the final in&#8209;well concentrations of substrates, inhibitors, and permeabilizer after each injection rather than simply transferring volumes from the 24&#8209;well workflow. In practice, users should (i) use the manufacturer&#8209;specified starting well volume and injection volumes for the chosen plate, (ii) calculate the required injection&#8209;mix concentrations based on dilution into the new total well volume after each port, and (iii) empirically re&#8209;optimize cell seeding density, digitonin working concentration, and FCCP titration because O2 consumption dynamic range and mixing characteristics differ between formats. Importantly, acceptance criteria described here (stable baseline OCR, expected inhibitor sensitivity, preserved Complex IV respiration, and a clear succinate&#8209;supported OCR increase in permeabilized wells) remain applicable and provide a transferable framework for 96&#8209;well implementation.
Despite its strengths, the study has limitations. The protocol was optimized using a single cell line BE(2)-C, which may limit generalizability. However, the framework is adaptable and can be optimized for other cell types. Future studies should explore its application in primary neurons, glial cells, and patient-derived cells. Future application of this platform to differentiated neuroblastoma cells or primary neurons will allow assessment of how neuronal polarization and dendritic enrichment of muscarinic receptors modulate mitochondrial bioenergetics under more physiologically specialized conditions. Integration with live-cell imaging, omics-based analyses, and genetic manipulation tools (e.g., CRISPR/Cas9) could further elucidate mitochondrial pathways involved in disease pathogenesis. Additionally, investigating other receptor systems&#8212;such as adrenergic or glutamatergic signaling&#8212;may reveal broader insights into cell-type-specific metabolic regulation.

Malfunction or reprogramming of mitochondrial energy metabolism is central to a wide spectrum of disorders, including neurodegeneration, cancer, inflammatory diseases, cardiometabolic conditions, and various genetic disorders. To better understand the role of mitochondrial metabolism in disease pathogenesis, several analytical strategies have been developed. These include measurements of O2 consumption rate (OCR), extracellular acidification rate (ECAR), ATP quantification, substrate utilization, profiling or Krebs cycle metabolite analysis, and isotope tracing1. Among these techniques, OCR serves as a key indicator of mitochondrial respiration and can be assessed using instruments such as High-Resolution Respirometry (HRR; e.g., Oroboros O2k)2, Clark-type electrode, or the extracellular flux analyzer
The Oroboros O2k system measures O2 concentration in a sealed chamber using Clark type polarographic O2 sensor (POS)3,4,5 and is suitable for samples such as isolated mitochondria, permeabilized cells, and tissue homogenates. It consists of a gold/platinum cathode, a silver anode, and a KCl electrolyte reservoir separated from the sample by a 25 &#181;m O2 permeable and chemically resistant Fluorinated Ethylene Propylene membrane (FEP). The Clark-type electrode3 also operates in a closed chamber, detecting changes in O2 concentration via an O2-sensitive electrode, and is commonly used for isolated mitochondria or cell suspensions. In contrast, the extracellular flux analyzer quantifies OCR and ECAR in live adherent cells or isolated mitochondria using fluorescent sensors embedded in microplates, enabling high-throughput metabolic profiling. A practical advantage of the extracellular flux analyzer platform is automated, multiparametric assessment across multiple conditions in parallel, whereas closed-chamber systems (e.g., HRR or Clark-type electrodes) typically provide lower throughput and require more manual handling.
The extracellular flux analyzer is especially useful for evaluating mitochondrial function in intact adherent cells or suspension cells that settle at the bottom of the microplate. In assays using intact adherent cells, mitochondrial energy metabolism can be profiled using substrates such as glucose or pyruvate6. Alternatively, assays using small quantities of enriched mitochondrial fractions allow sequential measurement of basal respiration, ADP-stimulated respiration (State 3), resting respiration (State 4), and uncoupler-stimulated respiration using combinations of substrates and inhibitors7. However, in intact cell systems, Tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle metabolites that are not cell-permeable cannot be used to assess their metabolism directly. While isolated mitochondria allow the use of such metabolites due to the absence of plasma membrane barriers. Analysis of isolated enriched mitochondrial bioenergetics approach has limitations: mitochondrial structure can be altered during isolation, and cytosolic factors that influence mitochondrial metabolism and metabolite transport are reduced or absent. Accordingly, selective permeabilization approaches are often used as a compromise that can retain aspects of cellular architecture while enabling controlled access to mitochondria. To overcome the limitations of using either intact cells or isolated mitochondria for metabolic assays, this protocol describes a method for permeabilizing adherent neuroblastoma (BE(2)&#8209;C) cells using digitonin. This approach facilitates import of otherwise non&#8211;cell-permeant metabolites across the plasma membrane while maintaining functional mitochondrial responses to defined substrates and inhibitors.
The selectivity of digitonin is based on differences in membrane lipid composition: the plasma membrane is rich in cholesterol, whereas mitochondrial membranes&#8212;particularly the inner mitochondrial membrane&#8212;contain very little cholesterol8. At low concentrations, digitonin (or saponin) selectively and completely permeabilizes the plasma membrane due to its high cholesterol content, while mitochondrial membranes are affected only at higher concentrations9,10. Digitonin binds to cholesterol and forms pores in the plasma membrane, allowing small molecules such as TCA cycle intermediates to enter the cytosol without disrupting mitochondrial structure or function when properly optimized. This approach is best suited for cultured cells that can be plated reproducibly as adherent monolayers in an extracellular flux analyzer microplate and requires empirical titration of digitonin concentration for each cell type and seeding density. Operational indicators of preserved mitochondrial integrity include robust, inhibitor&#8209;sensitive OCR responses (e.g., expected decreases with rotenone/antimycin A and intact Complex IV&#8209;driven respiration with ascorbate/TMPD), along with the absence of OCR collapse that would signal overpermeabilization. Therefore, digitonin optimization should be performed before experimental comparisons and repeated whenever culture conditions or cell density change. Moreover, the optimal digitonin concentration varies by cell type and must be empirically determined to establish a permeabilization window that permits entry of impermeant substrates (e.g., succinate) while maintaining inhibitor&#8209;sensitive mitochondrial function. In this study, we illustrate this principle by optimizing digitonin not only in BE(2)-C cells, but also in HEK293 cells and primary rat dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons.
This protocol was demonstrated using BE(2)-C neuroblastoma cells, which were originally isolated from the brain of a male patient with neuroblastoma. BE(2)-C cells express various muscarinic receptors, particularly the cholinergic receptor muscarinic type-1 (CHRM1). In our previous studies, we demonstrated that CHRM1 is associated with mitochondria in both the cell bodies and neurites of cultured rat dorsal root ganglion neurons, as well as in CHRM1&#8209;transfected HEK293 cells11. Furthermore, genetic deletion of Chrm1 in mice alters multiple aspects of mitochondrial structure and function12,13. Therefore, we hypothesize that BE(2)-C cells can be used to investigate the modulatory effects of muscarinic ligands on OXPHOS function. In this demonstration, we examined the effects of muscarinic agents&#8212;including agonist acetylcholine, the biased antagonist pirenzepine14, and the antagonist atropine&#8212;on mitochondrial respiration in the presence of either succinate or pyruvate/malate as substrates and compared their impact.

<table><tbody><tr><td>Acetylcholine chloride</td><td>MilliporeSigma</td><td>A6625</td><td>Muscarinic agonist</td></tr><tr><td>ADP</td><td>MP Biomedicals, Inc</td><td>ICN19014901</td><td>Electron acceptor, substrate for ATP synthesis.</td></tr><tr><td>Antimycin A</td><td>AAJ63522MA</td><td>Thermo Scientific</td><td>Inhibits mitochondrial complex III</td></tr><tr><td>Atropine</td><td>MilliporeSigma</td><td>1044990</td><td>Muscarinic antagonist</td></tr><tr><td>Be2C cells</td><td>American Type Culture Collection</td><td>CRL-2268</td><td>A neuroblast cell that was isolated from the brain of a male patient with neuroblastoma, express muscarinic receptor</td></tr><tr><td>Digitonin</td><td>MilliporeSigma</td><td>D141</td><td>Mild detergent, membrane permeabilizer.</td></tr><tr><td>D-Mannitol</td><td>Thermo Scientific Chemicals</td><td>AA3334236</td><td>A non-metabolizable sugar alcohol, used for osmotic stabilization and membrane protection</td></tr><tr><td>EGTA</td><td>MilliporeSigma</td><td>E0396</td><td>Calcium Chelation, Prevents activation of calcium-dependent proteases and other enzymes that could degrade mitochondrial proteins.</td></tr><tr><td>fatty acid-free BSA</td><td>MilliporeSigma</td><td>126575</td><td>Prevents uncontrolled fatty acid effects, stabilizes mitochondria</td></tr><tr><td>FCCP</td><td>Cayman Chemical</td><td>NC0904863</td><td>A protonophore and uncoupler of oxidative phosphorylation in mitochondria</td></tr><tr><td>HEPES</td><td>MilliporeSigma</td><td>391340</td><td>pH buffering, compatibility with mitochondrial function</td></tr><tr><td>L-Ascorbate</td><td>TCI America</td><td>A053925G</td><td>TCA cycle intermediate, substrate of OXPHOS</td></tr><tr><td>Magnesium chloride</td><td>MilliporeSigma</td><td>M8266</td><td>For ionic balance, support for enzymatic activity</td></tr><tr><td>N1,N1,N1,N1-tetramethyl-1,4-phenylene diamine (TMPD)</td><td></td><td></td><td>Electron Donor to Cytochrome c, assessment of complex IV function by bypassing Complex I and II, TMPD/ascorbate enables direct measurement of Complex IV-dependent oxygen consumption</td></tr><tr><td>Oligomycin</td><td>MilliporeSigma</td><td>1404-19-9</td><td>Inhibits mitochondrial ATP synthesis, Complex V</td></tr><tr><td>Pirenzepine dihydrochloride</td><td>MilliporeSigma</td><td>P7412</td><td>Muscarinic biased agonist</td></tr><tr><td>Pyruvic acid</td><td>Thermo Scientific Chemicals</td><td>AC132155000</td><td>TCA cycle substrate</td></tr><tr><td>Rotenone</td><td>MilliporeSigma</td><td>557368</td><td>Inhibits mitochondrial complex I</td></tr><tr><td>Seahorse XF24 V7 PS Cell Culture Microplates</td><td>Agilent</td><td>102340-100</td><td>Cell Culture Microplates</td></tr><tr><td>Seahorse XFe24 Analyzer</td><td>Agilent</td><td>S7801BR</td><td>Agilent Seahorse XFe24 Analyzers measure the oxygen consumption rate (OCR) and extracellular acidification rate (ECAR) of live cells in a 24-well plate format.</td></tr><tr><td>Succinic acid</td><td>Fisher Chemical</td><td>AC158742500</td><td>TCA cycle intermediate, substrate of OXPHOS</td></tr><tr><td>XFe24 sensor cartridge calibration buffer</td><td>Agilent</td><td>102340100</td><td>PBS buffer pH 7.2</td></tr><tr><td>XFe24 sensor cartridges</td><td>Agilent</td><td>102340-100</td><td>sensor for OCR and ECAR measurement</td></tr></tbody></table>

The objective of this study was to assess oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) function in cultured cells using defined substrate&#8211;inhibitor combinations while retaining cellular structure and cytosolic context lost in isolated mitochondrial preparations. Because intact cells are poorly permeable to several Krebs cycle intermediates, direct assessment of substrate-supported respiration through specific electron transport chain (ETC) entry points is limited. To overcome this, we applied digitonin-mediated selective plasma membrane permeabilization and performed extracellular flux analyzer&#8211;based coupling and electron flow assays in BE(2)-C neuroblastoma cells. To determine cell-type dependence, digitonin was empirically titrated in HEK293 cells and primary rat dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons using succinate + rotenone to isolate Complex II&#8211;IV&#8211;driven respiration.
Succinate-supported respiration with Complex I inhibition showed increased Complex II&#8211;IV&#8211;driven oxygen (O&#8322;) consumption in permeabilized compared with non-permeabilized cells, consistent with improved access of a membrane-impermeant substrate to mitochondria. In contrast, respiration supported by substrates that enter via endogenous transport pathways (e.g., pyruvate/malate) showed smaller differences between conditions. Using this platform to test muscarinic ligands, we observed agonist- versus antagonist-associated differences in O&#8322; consumption in the coupling assay, whereas the electron flow assay revealed minimal ligand-associated effects under the tested conditions. These findings indicate that detectable ligand effects were more prominent at the level of coupling-defined respiratory states than maximal electron transfer capacity. Overall, selective permeabilization expands substrate accessibility in cultured-cell bioenergetic assays and enables analysis of pharmacologic modulation of mitochondrial respiration.

We present a protocol to selectively permeabilize plasma membrane, enabling targeted delivery of substrates and inhibitors to assess mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) in cultured cells, overcoming plasma membrane transport barriers that typically hinder such analysis. Using this technique, we demonstrated how OXPHOS function is modulated by muscarinic agonists and antagonists.

cholinergic-liganddependent-modulation-oxidative-phosphorylation

Cholinergic Ligand&#8211;dependent Modulation of Oxidative Phosphorylation Coupling in Digitonin-permeabilized BE(2)-C Neuroblastoma Cells

The objective of this study was to assess oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) function in cultured cells using defined substrate&#8211;inhibitor ...

Sen Yang 

The regional decline in energy supply is often linked to the degeneration of selectively vulnerable neuronal subtypes. To gain a deeper understanding of the underlying mechanisms, researchers have developed numerous advanced technologies and methods for accurately measuring metabolic activity and assessing the role of each bioenergetic pathway in brain function. This Methods Collection is dedicated to showcasing the latest methods, spanning from subcellular and intercellular to systemic levels, and incorporating a multi-omics approach along with genetically encoded biosensor imaging. As an invaluable resource for researchers in the field, this collection of cutting-edge methods enables efficient investigation of their scientific inquiries.&nbsp;

JoVE Neuroscience is a multidisciplinary section devoted to investigations of the structure, function, physiology, and pathophysiology of the brain and nervous system. Included methodologies range from molecular and cellular level studies to full central and peripheral neural systems. Potential treatment platforms and surgical techniques for neurological diseases and disorders are also presented in this section.

Guest Editor

Collection Overview

Articles

Cholinergic Ligand–dependent Modulation of Oxidative Phosphorylation Coupling in Digitonin-permeabilized BE(2)-C Neuroblastoma Cells

Abstracts