Name: how organelles are split during cytokinesis
Uploaded: 2021-04-07T12:12:02.000Z
Duration: 2 min 33 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

Next Generation Science Standards

High School

Life Science

from-molecules-to-organisms-structures-and-processes

From Molecules to Organisms: Structures and Processes

HS-LS1-4

Distribution of Cytoplasmic Content

Cytoplazma komórki zawiera wiele różnych organelli. Każda organella różni się strukturą, funkcją i liczbą kopii; Dlatego komórka musi stosować różne strategie, aby prawidłowo oddzielić każdy typ organelli od swoich komórek potomnych.
Otoczka jądrowa i retikulum endoplazmatyczne są bezpośrednio połączone, a zatem ich dystrybucja do komórek potomnych jest sprzężona.
W profazie otoczka jądrowa i związane z nią białka łączą się z retikulum endoplazmatycznym. Przypominająca arkusz retikulum endoplazmatyczne przekształca się w strukturę rurkową i reorganizuje się w pobliżu kory komórkowej podczas metafazy.
Po segregacji chromosomów retikulum endoplazmatyczne otacza chromatydy siostrzane i reformuje otoczkę jądrową.
W mitozie mitochondria ulegają rozszczepieniu w celu wytworzenia pofragmentowanych mitochondriów, które rozprzestrzeniają się po całej komórce.
Uważa się, że podczas podziału komórki te pofragmentowane mitochondria są rozprowadzane do komórek potomnych w procesie stochastycznym lub losowym, a następnie ulegają fuzji, aby odzyskać swój kształt i rozmiar.
Pojedyncza kopia ciała Golgiego jest obecna w komórce, a jej równomierne rozmieszczenie ma kluczowe znaczenie dla przetrwania komórki. Ciało Golgiego rozkłada się stopniowo przed segregacją na komórki potomne.
Wstęga Golgiego zawierająca ułożone w stos cysterny rozpada się na wiele mini stosów, które są następnie rozkładane na pęcherzyki.
W anafazie pęcherzyki Golgiego ulegają fuzji, tworząc cysterny, które następnie są ponownie układane. Następnie małe i duże bliźniacze Golgi tworzą się odpowiednio w pobliżu środkowej części ciała i centrosomu w telofazie.
Wreszcie, podczas cytokinezy, mniejsze bliźniacze ciała Golgiego łączą się z większymi, tworząc pojedyncze ciało Golgiego w każdej komórce potomnej.
Podział symetryczny zachodzi w większości komórek, w których komórka wytwarza dwie identyczne komórki potomne o tym samym losie.
W niektórych komórkach podział asymetryczny zachodzi tam, gdzie występuje nierówne dziedziczenie determinantów losu komórki, co skutkuje wytwarzaniem nieidentycznych komórek potomnych.
Na przykład komórki macierzyste mogą ulegać asymetrycznemu podziałowi komórkowemu, aby wytworzyć jedną komórkę potomną, która zachowuje się jak rodzicielska komórka macierzysta, podczas gdy druga komórka potomna może podążać za inną linią komórkową.

<ol>
	<li>Rabouille, Catherine i Eija Jokitalo. "Partycjonowanie aparatu Golgiego podczas podziału komórki." Biologia błon molekularnych 20, nr 2 (2003): 117-127.</li>
	<li>Yamano, Koji i Richard J. Youle. "Sprzężenie podziału mitochondriów i komórek". Nature Cell biology 13, nr 9 (2011): 1026.</li>
	<li>McCullough, Simon i John Lucocq. "Pozycjonowanie i partycjonowanie retikulum endoplazmatycznego w mitotycznych komórkach HeLa." Journal of Anatomy 206, nr 5 (2005): 415-425.</li>
</ol>

podział zawartości cytoplazmatycznej

Cytokineza segreguje chromosomy i organelle komórki w komórki potomne. Organelle dzielą się i rosną przed podziałem komórkowym, ale nie mogą być syntetyzowane od nowa; dlatego komórki, aby przeżyć, muszą otrzymać co najmniej jedną kopię każdej organelli. Obecnie wiele szczegółów rozmieszczenia organelli nie jest jeszcze w pełni wyjaśnionych. <h4>Rozkład determinantów cytoplazmatycznych</h4> Cytoplazma zawiera różne organelle, a także sole, białka i wodę. Rozmieszczenie małych organelli, takich jak peroksysomy i lizosomy, można wyjaśnić prostą dyfuzją. Ponieważ każda komórka ma wiele kopii każdej organelli, komórki potomne mają duże prawdopodobieństwo otrzymania co najmniej jednej kopii organelli. Jednak rozmieszczenie dużych organelli, takich jak ER lub chloroplast, wymaga bardziej złożonych, konserwatywnych ewolucyjnie mechanizmów. <h4>Najnowsze postępy w rozmieszczeniu aparatu Golgiego</h4> Aparat Golgiego ulega rozpadowi, gdy komórki wchodzą w mitozę. Dwa możliwe modele mogą wyjaśnić rozkład aparatu Golgiego w komórkach potomnych. Według pierwszego modelu podczas profazy kanaliki Golgiego ulegają rozszczepieniu i uwalniane są małe stosy Golgiego. Są one dalej fragmentowane na pęcherzyki i kanaliki. Te mitotyczne skupiska aparatów Golgiego (MGC) rozpraszają się w cytoplazmie i segregują do dzielących się komórek podczas anafazy. Mikrotubule wrzeciona kierują dystrybucją MGC w uporządkowany sposób. Drugi model zakłada, że białka i błony Golgiego są ponownie wchłaniane w ER na początku mitozy, umożliwiając Golgiemu podział z ER. <h4>Najnowsze postępy w rozmieszczeniu mitochondriów</h4> Mitochondria są organellami krytycznymi dla przeżycia i wzrostu komórek. Podczas mitozy mitochondria dzielą się na mniejsze fragmenty, które następnie mogą zostać rozdzielone pomiędzy komórkami potomnymi. Konserwatywne białko DRP1 zwęża zewnętrzną błonę mitochondrialną i powoduje rozszczepienie mitochondriów. Cyklina B-Cdk1 i Aurora-A, dwie kinazy mitotyczne, regulują aktywację DRP1. <h4>Najnowsze postępy w rozmieszczeniu siateczki śródplazmatycznej</h4> Międzyfazowa retikulum endoplazmatyczne (ER) jest ciągłą membraną, która syntetyzuje błony aparatu Golgiego, endolizosomów, pęcherzyków i błony plazmatycznej. Podczas mitozy ER może ulec fragmentacji lub może pozostać w postaci cystern. W komórkach HeLa ER utrzymuje się w postaci cysterny i ogranicza się do kory komórkowej. ER jest nierównomiernie rozłożony, a cysterny środkowe są powiązane z wrzecionem. ER może być przywiązany do ścian kory komórek mitotycznych przed rozprowadzeniem do komórek potomnych.

Podział zawartości cytoplazmatycznej

Cytokineza segreguje chromosomy i organelle komórki w komórki potomne. Organelle dzielą się i rosną przed podziałem komórki, ale nie mogą być ...

Education

JoVE Core

Molecular Biology

Biologia molekularna

Unit 2

Jednostka 2

Cell Division

Podział komórki

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

Kluczowe terminy i pojęcia

how organelles are split during cytokinesis

Cytokinesis splits a cell’s chromosomes and organelles into two daughter cells. Before cell division, organelles grow and divide. They cannot be made from scratch, so each daughter cell must inherit at least one copy to survive. Many details of this organelle sorting process are still not fully known.

The cytoplasm contains organelles, salts, proteins, and water. Small organelles such as peroxisomes and lysosomes can be shared by simple diffusion. Because cells contain many copies of these organelles, each daughter cell has a high chance of getting at least one. Larger organelles, such as the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and chloroplasts, need more complex and conserved mechanisms.

The Golgi apparatus shows one of the best-studied cases. As cells enter mitosis, the Golgi breaks down. One model says the Golgi tubules are cut during prophase, and small stacks are released. These stacks are broken into vesicles and tubules, forming mitotic Golgi clusters, or MGCs, that spread through the cytoplasm and divide during anaphase with help from spindle microtubules. A second model suggests that Golgi proteins and membranes are taken back into the ER at the start of mitosis, so the Golgi is partitioned with the ER.

Mitochondria also change form before they are passed to daughter cells. These organelles are important for cell survival and growth. During mitosis, mitochondria break into smaller pieces by fission, which is the splitting of one organelle into two. The protein DRP1 constricts the outer mitochondrial membrane and drives this process. Two mitotic kinases, Cyclin B-Cdk1 and Aurora-A, regulate DRP1 activity.

The ER can also follow different patterns during mitosis. In interphase, the ER is a continuous membrane that helps make membranes for Golgi bodies, endolysosomes, vesicles, and the plasma membrane. During mitosis, it may fragment or stay as cisternae, which are flattened membrane sacs. In HeLa cells, the ER stays as cisternae and is kept near the cell cortex. The ER is not spread evenly, and the cisternae in the center are linked to the spindle. The ER may be tethered to the cortex wall before it is sorted into the daughter cells.

How Organelles Are Split During Cytokinesis

how-organelles-are-split-during-cytokinesis

mitosis and cytokinesis

Mitosis and Cytokinesis Stages

Mitosis and cytokinesis are the two main steps of cell division. Mitosis is the process that divides the nucleus, while cytokinesis splits the rest of the cell. During mitosis, the cell’s genetic material is separated into two sets. This helps form two new nuclei with the same genetic information. Cytokinesis then completes division by separating the cytoplasm, which creates two daughter cells. These stages work together to make cell division possible in growing and repairing tissues.

duplication of chromatin structure

Chromatin Rebuilding During DNA Replication

Chromatin rebuilding during DNA replication helps cells copy DNA and pass on chromosome structure to daughter cells. During cell division, the genome must be disrupted and then reassembled across the whole chromosome. This process allows chromatin to be inherited, rebuilt, and maintained in new cells. The basic unit of chromatin is the nucleosome. A nucleosome contains DNA wrapped around an octamer of histone proteins, with short linker DNA between neighboring nucleosomes. The histone proteins...

cohesins

Cohesins in Meiosis and Genetic Disorders

Cohesin protein complexes act like molecular glue that keeps sister chromatids together. They are important in both mitosis and meiosis. In mitosis, cohesin complexes are removed from chromosomes before anaphase begins. Meiosis has two rounds of chromosome separation. Meiosis I separates homologous chromosomes, while Meiosis II separates sister chromatids. This process produces four daughter cells. The Meiosis I cohesin complex is made of four subunits: Smc1, Smc3, Rec8, and Scc3. Rec8...

condensins

How Condensins Shape Mitotic Chromosomes

Condensins shape chromosomes during mitosis, the stage when a cell divides. These large protein complexes use ATP, the cell’s energy molecule, to help turn loose post-interphase DNA into compact, separate chromosomes. They organize and segregate chromosomal DNA so it can be passed on correctly. Plant and animal cells contain two condensin complexes: condensin I and condensin II. Each complex has five subunits. Two are SMC, or Structural Maintenance of Chromosomes, subunits. One is a kleisin...

the mitotic spindle

How the Mitotic Spindle Separates Chromosomes

The mitotic spindle is a microtubule-based structure that helps separate chromosomes during cell division. It forms in eukaryotic cells and moves sister chromatids to opposite ends of the parent cell. This leaves each new cell nucleus with the correct genetic material. A bipolar spindle has two poles, and that shape is important for chromosome segregation. In many animal cells, two centrosomes are present when mitosis begins. Each centrosome helps organize a circular set of microtubules at one...

centrosome duplication

Centrosome Duplication in the Cell Cycle

Centrosome duplication is a key part of the animal cell cycle. The centrosome is the main microtubule organizing center, or MTOC, in animal cells. It contains two cylindrical centrioles at its core. Each centriole has nine sets of three microtubules held together by proteins. The two centrioles sit at right angles and are surrounded by the pericentriolar matrix, or PCM, a shapeless protein cloud. Duplication starts early in the cell cycle so each daughter cell can receive a centrosome after...

microtubule instability

Microtubule Growth and Shrinkage

Microtubules are hollow, cylindrical filaments in the cell. They are about 25 nm wide and can range from 200 nm to 25 μm in length. Their main building blocks are GTP-bound tubulin subunits that form αβ-heterodimers, which then assemble into protofilaments. These protofilaments join by lateral bonds to create stable microtubule cylinders. Microtubules are highly dynamic because they repeatedly assemble and break down. They can even grow on one end while shrinking on the other at the same time.

spindle assembly

How the Mitotic Spindle Forms

The mitotic spindle forms through centrosome-mediated, chromatin-mediated, and microtubule-mediated pathways. These pathways often work at the same time. Together, they build a strong spindle apparatus for cell division. In most cells, centrosomes are the main sites where microtubules begin to grow. During the G2 to prophase transition, centrosomes mature and make more microtubules. The growing microtubules extend from both centrosomes, and their plus-ends search for chromosomes by attaching...

attachment of sister chromatids

Kinetochore-Microtubule Binding in Mitosis

Kinetochore-microtubule binding helps chromosomes line up and separate during mitosis. After the nuclear envelope breaks down, condensed chromosomes are exposed to the bipolar microtubules of the mitotic spindle. The kinetochore is a large, disc-shaped protein complex at the centromere region of each sister chromatid, and it serves as the microtubule binding site. Usually, the plus-end of a single microtubule inserts into the kinetochore. In some cases, a kinetochore first makes lateral...

forces acting on chromosomes

Chromosome Movement During Mitosis

Chromosome movement during mitosis depends on several small forces that act at different times and positions in the cell. In prometaphase, these forces help chromosomes move to the equatorial plane and line up at the metaphase plate. Because the forces change with location and stage, chromosome behavior also changes as mitosis continues. Microtubules and motor proteins create two main kinds of force on chromosomes: poleward force and anti-poleward force, also called polar-ejection force.

separation of sister chromatids

Anaphase Start and Chromatid Release

Anaphase starts when sister chromatids are released from one another and pulled toward opposite spindle poles. Before that happens, cohesion along the chromosomal arms is reduced from prophase to metaphase, which helps the sister chromatids resolve. A residual cohesin link still holds them together until the metaphase-to-anaphase transition. This leftover connection helps prevent early separation and reduces the risk of aneuploidy, or the wrong number of chromosomes, in daughter cells. At the...

the spindle assembly checkpoint

How Cells Safeguard Chromosome Separation

The spindle assembly checkpoint helps cells safeguard chromosome separation during anaphase. It acts as a molecular surveillance system. The checkpoint checks whether the steps needed for chromosome segregation are complete before the cell moves on. Many proteins work together to control this checkpoint. If mutations affect these proteins, a cell may enter anaphase too early. Chromosomes can then separate before the needed steps are finished. When this happens, the daughter cells may receive...

anaphase a and b

Chromatid Movement by Microtubule Forces

Chromatid movement during anaphase depends on microtubule forces at the spindle. Kinetochore microtubules grow from the spindle poles, and their plus ends attach to kinetochores on sister chromatids. The kinetochore protein complex Ndc80 makes low-affinity links with the microtubule plus end.

the contractile ring

How Cells Build the Contractile Ring

Contractile rings are built from microfilaments and help separate daughter cells during cytokinesis. This ring forms as the cell cycle moves forward, but the exact timing and coordination with other cell cycle events are still not fully understood. RhoA, a small GTPase in the Ras superfamily, controls contractile ring assembly and function. The inactive form of RhoA is bound to GDP. A guanine nucleotide exchange factor, or Rho-GEF, is located in the cortex region, where the next cell division...

determining the plane of cell division

How Cells Set the Division Plane

How cells set the division plane during cell division affects daughter cell size and, in many cases, cell fate. The plane of division is perpendicular to the plane of chromosome segregation. Different organisms use different cues to place it, based on their shape and needs. In animal cells, the cleavage furrow forms along the division plane from the cell cortex, the area just below the plasma membrane. The mitotic spindle is the main guide for this position. If the spindle axis changes, the...

the phragmoplast

How Plant Cells Build a New Wall

Plant cells build a new wall during cytokinesis with help from the phragmoplast. This plant structure forms from the central spindle and related cell parts as the cell finishes dividing. In animal cells, the comparable structure is the midbody, but in plants the phragmoplast expands outward to guide new wall formation. The mature phragmoplast has a donut-like shape. It has an outer leading region, a middle transition zone, and an inner lagging region. New microtubules are assembled...

distribution of cytoplasmic content

Cytokinesis splits a cell’s chromosomes and organelles into two daughter cells. Before cell division, organelles grow and divide. They cannot be made from scratch, so each daughter cell must inherit at least one copy to survive. Many details of this organelle sorting process are still not fully known. The cytoplasm contains organelles, salts, proteins, and water. Small organelles such as peroxisomes and lysosomes can be shared by simple diffusion. Because cells contain many copies of these...

anaphase promoting complex

APC Activates Chromosome Separation

The anaphase-promoting complex, or APC, helps control cell cycle progression by destroying specific proteins at the right time. These proteins are tagged with ubiquitin by ubiquitin ligases and then broken down by the proteasome. The SCF (Skp1/Cullin/F-box) complex and APC are two major ubiquitin ligases involved in this process. SCF stays active throughout the cell cycle, but APC turns on during the metaphase-to-anaphase transition. APC becomes active when Cdc20 or Cdh1 binds to it. These...

key terms and concepts

Learn how cells distribute organelles during cytokinesis, including the Golgi apparatus, mitochondria, and endoplasmic reticulum in daughter cells.

How Organelles Are Split During Cytokinesis | JoVE K12

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Inheritance and Variation of Traits

HS-LS1-4.

Characteristics of Life

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HS-LS1-2

How Organelles Are Split During Cytokinesis

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