Name: how cells set the division plane
Uploaded: 2021-04-07T12:12:02.000Z
Duration: 2 min 13 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

Next Generation Science Standards

High School

Life Science

from-molecules-to-organisms-structures-and-processes

From Molecules to Organisms: Structures and Processes

HS-LS1-4

Determining the Plane of Cell Division

Точное определение делящейся клеткой плоскости ее деления имеет важное значение для успешного разделения хромосом и распределения цитоплазматического содержимого по дочерним клеткам.
У животных плоскость деления расположена на экваторе клетки между сегрегированными хромосомами, а ее местоположение определяется во время анафазы. Микротрубочки, образующие митотическое веретено, взаимодействуют с клеточной корой и играют решающую роль в уточнении борозды спайности.
Для объяснения определения плоскости деления клеток используются три различные модели – модель астральной стимуляции, модель полярной релаксации и модель стимуляции центрального веретена.
В модели астральной стимуляции радиальные массивы астральных микротрубочек взаимодействуют с экваториальной корой и индуцируют образование борозды расщепления.
В модели полярной релаксации астральные микротрубочки посылают тормозящие сигналы к полюсам клеток и тем самым подавляют образование борозды расщепления на обоих полюсах. Это приводит к сокращению коры головного мозга на клеточном экваторе.
Как только начинается анафаза, межполярные микротрубочки, присутствующие между сегрегированными хромосомами, перестраиваются в перекрывающиеся антипараллельные микротрубочки, также известные как центральное веретено. В модели стимуляции центрального веретена центральное веретено стимулирует образование борозды спайности в экваториальной коре. 
Общее мнение заключается в том, что все три процесса действуют вместе, определяя плоскость деления клеток. Этот многосторонний подход может заставить систему реагировать на колебания концентрации белка, а также размера клетки, и тем самым повысить точность деления клеток.
Вклад каждого метода зависит от типа и размера клетки. Например, у эмбрионов C. elegans присутствует большое количество астральных микротрубочек, которые могут играть более активную роль в определении плоскости клеточного деления.

<ol>
	<li>Молекулярная биология клетки, Альбертс, 6-е издание. Страницы 997-999.</li>
	<li>Молекулярная клеточная биология, Лодиш, 8-е издание. Страниц - 903.</li>
	<li>Гилен, Дэнни. "Положение плоскости деления определяется сайтом коркового деления на плазматической мембране." В книге "Биотехнология и устойчивое сельское хозяйство 2006 и далее", стр. 121-124. Springer, Dordrecht, 2007.</li>
	<li>Баласубраманиан, Мохан К., Эрфей Би и Майкл Глоцер. "Сравнительный анализ цитокинеза в почковающихся дрожжах, дрожжах деления и клетках животных." Current Biology 14, No18 (2004): R806-R818.</li>
	<li>Чант, Джон. "Септиновые каркасы и плоскости спайности у Saccharomyces." Cell 84, no. 2 (1996): 187-190.</li>
	<li>Ринкон, Серджио А., и Энн Паолетти. "Mid1/anillin и пространственная регуляция цитокинеза у делящихся дрожжей." Цитоскелет 69, No10 (2012): 764-777.</li>
	<li>Галли, Матильда и Сандер ван ден Хойвел. "Определение плоскости расщепления у ранних эмбрионов C. elegans." Ежегодный обзор генетики 42 (2008): 389-411.</li>
</ol>

Определение плоскости деления клеток

Расположение плоскости деления клеток является критическим шагом во время развития и дифференцировки клеток, особенно во время митоза, когда плоскость важна для определения размера двух дочерних клеток. Плоскость деления клеток перпендикулярна плоскости сегрегации хромосом, но разные типы организмов имеют разные механизмы деления клеток, соответствующие их морфологии и функциям.

 <h4>Животные клетки</h4> 
 В клетках животных борозда расщепления образуется вдоль плоскости клеточного деления, начиная с коры клетки, области под плазматической мембраной. Митотическое веретено играет решающую роль в определении плоскости деления клеток; следовательно, изменение оси митотического веретена может изменить плоскость деления. Эта стратегия используется некоторыми эукариотическими организмами, такими как почвенная нематода, для переключения с симметричного на асимметричное деление клеток. Симметричное деление клеток дает две идентичные дочерние клетки и часто используется для выращивания тканей, содержащих множество клеток одного и того же типа. Напротив, асимметричное деление создает клеточное разнообразие, поскольку генерирует две неидентичные дочерние клетки. Например, нейроэпителиальные клетки первоначально увеличивают свое количество за счет симметричных делений. После этого они используют асимметричное деление для производства дочерних клеток, похожих на родительскую клетку, а также дифференцирующихся нейронов.


 <h4>Дрожжи</h4> 
 У почкующихся дрожжей, таких как Saccharomyces cerevisiae, плоскость клеточного деления определяется в фазе G1 белками септина. Цитокинез достигается за счет формирования борозды расщепления в области шейки почкующихся дрожжевых клеток; однако митотический аппарат не играет никакой роли в определении плоскости клеточного деления. Напротив, у делящихся дрожжей, таких как Schizosaccharomyces pombe, положение интерфазного ядра определяет расположение плоскости клеточного деления в фазе G2. Во время интерфазы белок Mid1 преимущественно локализуется в ядре; однако во время митоза Mid1 экспортируется из ядра в кору клетки, где он рекрутирует компоненты актомиозинового кольца в медиальную область клетки. В конечном итоге это приводит к делению материнской клетки на две дочерние клетки одинакового размера.

 <h4>Растения</h4> 
 В большинстве растительных клеток плоскость клеточного деления определяется до того, как клетка переходит в митоз. По экватору материнской клетки образуется препрофазная полоса, отмечающая плоскость клеточного деления. Препрофазная полоса представляет собой кольцевую структуру, состоящую из микротрубочек и F-актина. Он дает начало пучку микротрубочек, называемому фрагмопластом, который обеспечивает структурный каркас для расширения и позиционирования клеточной пластинки.

Позиционирование плоскости деления клетки является критическим этапом во время развития и дифференцировки клеток, особенно во время митоза, когда плоскость ...

Education

JoVE Core

Molecular Biology

Молекулярная биология

Unit 2

Раздел 2

Cell Division

Деление клетки

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

ОСНОВНЫЕ ТЕРМИНЫ И ПОНЯТИЯ

how cells set the division plane

How cells set the division plane during cell division affects daughter cell size and, in many cases, cell fate. The plane of division is perpendicular to the plane of chromosome segregation. Different organisms use different cues to place it, based on their shape and needs.

In animal cells, the cleavage furrow forms along the division plane from the cell cortex, the area just below the plasma membrane. The mitotic spindle is the main guide for this position. If the spindle axis changes, the division plane can change as well. Some eukaryotes, such as Caenorhabditis elegans, use this shift to move from symmetric division to asymmetric division.

Symmetric cell division makes two identical daughter cells and is often used to build tissues with many of the same cell type. Asymmetric division makes two different daughter cells and increases cell diversity. Neuroepithelial cells first divide symmetrically to raise their numbers. They later divide asymmetrically to form a daughter cell like the parent cell and another that will become a neuron.

In budding yeast, such as Saccharomyces cerevisiae, septin proteins decide the plane of division during the G1 phase. The cell then completes cytokinesis by forming a cleavage furrow at the bud neck. In this yeast, the mitotic apparatus does not set the division plane.

In fission yeast, such as Schizosaccharomyces pombe, the interphase nucleus helps decide where the division plane will form during the G2 phase. The Mid1 protein stays mainly in the nucleus during interphase. During mitosis, Mid1 moves to the cell cortex and recruits actomyosin ring components to the middle of the cell. This lets the mother cell divide into two similar-sized daughter cells.

In most plant cells, the division plane is set before the cell enters mitosis. A preprophase band forms along the cell equator and marks where division will occur. This ring-like structure contains microtubules and F-actin. It helps form the phragmoplast, which supports cell plate growth and placement.

How Cells Set the Division Plane

mitosis and cytokinesis

Mitosis and Cytokinesis Stages

Mitosis and cytokinesis are the two main steps of cell division. Mitosis is the process that divides the nucleus, while cytokinesis splits the rest of the cell. During mitosis, the cell’s genetic material is separated into two sets. This helps form two new nuclei with the same genetic information. Cytokinesis then completes division by separating the cytoplasm, which creates two daughter cells. These stages work together to make cell division possible in growing and repairing tissues.

duplication of chromatin structure

Chromatin Rebuilding During DNA Replication

Chromatin rebuilding during DNA replication helps cells copy DNA and pass on chromosome structure to daughter cells. During cell division, the genome must be disrupted and then reassembled across the whole chromosome. This process allows chromatin to be inherited, rebuilt, and maintained in new cells. The basic unit of chromatin is the nucleosome. A nucleosome contains DNA wrapped around an octamer of histone proteins, with short linker DNA between neighboring nucleosomes. The histone proteins...

cohesins

Cohesins in Meiosis and Genetic Disorders

Cohesin protein complexes act like molecular glue that keeps sister chromatids together. They are important in both mitosis and meiosis. In mitosis, cohesin complexes are removed from chromosomes before anaphase begins. Meiosis has two rounds of chromosome separation. Meiosis I separates homologous chromosomes, while Meiosis II separates sister chromatids. This process produces four daughter cells. The Meiosis I cohesin complex is made of four subunits: Smc1, Smc3, Rec8, and Scc3. Rec8...

condensins

How Condensins Shape Mitotic Chromosomes

Condensins shape chromosomes during mitosis, the stage when a cell divides. These large protein complexes use ATP, the cell’s energy molecule, to help turn loose post-interphase DNA into compact, separate chromosomes. They organize and segregate chromosomal DNA so it can be passed on correctly. Plant and animal cells contain two condensin complexes: condensin I and condensin II. Each complex has five subunits. Two are SMC, or Structural Maintenance of Chromosomes, subunits. One is a kleisin...

the mitotic spindle

How the Mitotic Spindle Separates Chromosomes

The mitotic spindle is a microtubule-based structure that helps separate chromosomes during cell division. It forms in eukaryotic cells and moves sister chromatids to opposite ends of the parent cell. This leaves each new cell nucleus with the correct genetic material. A bipolar spindle has two poles, and that shape is important for chromosome segregation. In many animal cells, two centrosomes are present when mitosis begins. Each centrosome helps organize a circular set of microtubules at one...

centrosome duplication

Centrosome Duplication in the Cell Cycle

Centrosome duplication is a key part of the animal cell cycle. The centrosome is the main microtubule organizing center, or MTOC, in animal cells. It contains two cylindrical centrioles at its core. Each centriole has nine sets of three microtubules held together by proteins. The two centrioles sit at right angles and are surrounded by the pericentriolar matrix, or PCM, a shapeless protein cloud. Duplication starts early in the cell cycle so each daughter cell can receive a centrosome after...

microtubule instability

Microtubule Growth and Shrinkage

Microtubules are hollow, cylindrical filaments in the cell. They are about 25 nm wide and can range from 200 nm to 25 μm in length. Their main building blocks are GTP-bound tubulin subunits that form αβ-heterodimers, which then assemble into protofilaments. These protofilaments join by lateral bonds to create stable microtubule cylinders. Microtubules are highly dynamic because they repeatedly assemble and break down. They can even grow on one end while shrinking on the other at the same time.

spindle assembly

How the Mitotic Spindle Forms

The mitotic spindle forms through centrosome-mediated, chromatin-mediated, and microtubule-mediated pathways. These pathways often work at the same time. Together, they build a strong spindle apparatus for cell division. In most cells, centrosomes are the main sites where microtubules begin to grow. During the G2 to prophase transition, centrosomes mature and make more microtubules. The growing microtubules extend from both centrosomes, and their plus-ends search for chromosomes by attaching...

attachment of sister chromatids

Kinetochore-Microtubule Binding in Mitosis

Kinetochore-microtubule binding helps chromosomes line up and separate during mitosis. After the nuclear envelope breaks down, condensed chromosomes are exposed to the bipolar microtubules of the mitotic spindle. The kinetochore is a large, disc-shaped protein complex at the centromere region of each sister chromatid, and it serves as the microtubule binding site. Usually, the plus-end of a single microtubule inserts into the kinetochore. In some cases, a kinetochore first makes lateral...

forces acting on chromosomes

Chromosome Movement During Mitosis

Chromosome movement during mitosis depends on several small forces that act at different times and positions in the cell. In prometaphase, these forces help chromosomes move to the equatorial plane and line up at the metaphase plate. Because the forces change with location and stage, chromosome behavior also changes as mitosis continues. Microtubules and motor proteins create two main kinds of force on chromosomes: poleward force and anti-poleward force, also called polar-ejection force.

separation of sister chromatids

Anaphase Start and Chromatid Release

Anaphase starts when sister chromatids are released from one another and pulled toward opposite spindle poles. Before that happens, cohesion along the chromosomal arms is reduced from prophase to metaphase, which helps the sister chromatids resolve. A residual cohesin link still holds them together until the metaphase-to-anaphase transition. This leftover connection helps prevent early separation and reduces the risk of aneuploidy, or the wrong number of chromosomes, in daughter cells. At the...

the spindle assembly checkpoint

How Cells Safeguard Chromosome Separation

The spindle assembly checkpoint helps cells safeguard chromosome separation during anaphase. It acts as a molecular surveillance system. The checkpoint checks whether the steps needed for chromosome segregation are complete before the cell moves on. Many proteins work together to control this checkpoint. If mutations affect these proteins, a cell may enter anaphase too early. Chromosomes can then separate before the needed steps are finished. When this happens, the daughter cells may receive...

anaphase a and b

Chromatid Movement by Microtubule Forces

Chromatid movement during anaphase depends on microtubule forces at the spindle. Kinetochore microtubules grow from the spindle poles, and their plus ends attach to kinetochores on sister chromatids. The kinetochore protein complex Ndc80 makes low-affinity links with the microtubule plus end.

the contractile ring

How Cells Build the Contractile Ring

Contractile rings are built from microfilaments and help separate daughter cells during cytokinesis. This ring forms as the cell cycle moves forward, but the exact timing and coordination with other cell cycle events are still not fully understood. RhoA, a small GTPase in the Ras superfamily, controls contractile ring assembly and function. The inactive form of RhoA is bound to GDP. A guanine nucleotide exchange factor, or Rho-GEF, is located in the cortex region, where the next cell division...

determining the plane of cell division

How cells set the division plane during cell division affects daughter cell size and, in many cases, cell fate. The plane of division is perpendicular to the plane of chromosome segregation. Different organisms use different cues to place it, based on their shape and needs. In animal cells, the cleavage furrow forms along the division plane from the cell cortex, the area just below the plasma membrane. The mitotic spindle is the main guide for this position. If the spindle axis changes, the...

the phragmoplast

How Plant Cells Build a New Wall

Plant cells build a new wall during cytokinesis with help from the phragmoplast. This plant structure forms from the central spindle and related cell parts as the cell finishes dividing. In animal cells, the comparable structure is the midbody, but in plants the phragmoplast expands outward to guide new wall formation. The mature phragmoplast has a donut-like shape. It has an outer leading region, a middle transition zone, and an inner lagging region. New microtubules are assembled...

distribution of cytoplasmic content

How Organelles Are Split During Cytokinesis

Cytokinesis splits a cell’s chromosomes and organelles into two daughter cells. Before cell division, organelles grow and divide. They cannot be made from scratch, so each daughter cell must inherit at least one copy to survive. Many details of this organelle sorting process are still not fully known. The cytoplasm contains organelles, salts, proteins, and water. Small organelles such as peroxisomes and lysosomes can be shared by simple diffusion. Because cells contain many copies of these...

anaphase promoting complex

APC Activates Chromosome Separation

The anaphase-promoting complex, or APC, helps control cell cycle progression by destroying specific proteins at the right time. These proteins are tagged with ubiquitin by ubiquitin ligases and then broken down by the proteasome. The SCF (Skp1/Cullin/F-box) complex and APC are two major ubiquitin ligases involved in this process. SCF stays active throughout the cell cycle, but APC turns on during the metaphase-to-anaphase transition. APC becomes active when Cdc20 or Cdh1 binds to it. These...

key terms and concepts

Learn how animal cells, yeast, and plant cells position the division plane using the spindle, septins, nucleus, and preprophase band.

How Cells Set the Division Plane | JoVE K12

molecular biology

JoVE Core Molecular Biology showcases the molecular processes of the cell through clear and concise animated video lessons. Additionally, in scientist-in-action videos, these concepts' application is demonstrated through real experiments in modern laboratories.

new-york-state-science-learning-standards

New York State Science Learning Standards

Inheritance and Variation of Traits

HS-LS1-4.

Characteristics of Life

Biology is a natural science that studies life and living organisms, including their structure, function, development, interactions, evolution, ...

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Cell Structure

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Cytoplasm

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The Nucleus

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The Central Dogma

The DNA Helix

Nucleic Acids

DNA as a Genetic Template

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Conservation of Protein Domains

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Transcription is the synthesis of RNA from a DNA sequence by RNA polymerase. It is the first step in producing a protein from a gene sequence. ...

Globular and Fibrous Proteins

Translation

Translation is the process of synthesizing proteins from the genetic information carried by messenger RNA (mRNA). Following transcription, it constitutes ...

Intrinsically Disordered Proteins

Ribosomes

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Protein Complex Assembly

Protein and Protein Structures

Conjugated Proteins

Proteins: From Genes to Degradation

Amyloid Fibrils

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Proteins are polymers of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds. Proteins and polypeptides are interchangeably used to refer to long chains of amino ...

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Protein-Protein Interfaces

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Conserved Binding Sites

Cofactors and Coenzymes

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Cooperative Allosteric Transitions

Protein Kinases and Phosphatases

GTPases and their Regulation

Covalently Linked Protein Regulators

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Protein Complexes with Interchangeable Parts

Mechanical Protein Function

Structural Protein Function

Protein Networks

Construct an explanation based on evidence for how the structure of DNA determines the structure of proteins, which carry out the essential functions of life through systems of specialized cells. [Assessment Boundary: Assessment does not include identification of specific cell or tissue types, whole body systems, specific protein structures and functions, or the biochemistry of protein synthesis.]

HS-LS1-1

Levels of Organization

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Animal and Plant Cell Structure

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Anatomy of the Intestines

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Lipid Digestion

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Protein Digestion

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Carbohydrate Digestion

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What is a Nervous System?

Overview

The nervous system is the collection of specialized cells responsible for maintaining an organism&rsquo;s internal environment and coordinating ...

The Parasympathetic Nervous System

Overview

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The Sympathetic Nervous System

Overview

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Fertilization

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What is the Skeletal System?

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An Introduction to the Zebrafish: Danio rerio

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Physiology of the Circulatory System

Homeostasis
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Measuring Circulatory System Function in Humans
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Develop and use a model to illustrate the hierarchical organization of interacting systems that provide specific functions within multicellular organisms. [Clarification Statement: Emphasis is on functions at the organism system level such as nutrient uptake, water delivery, and organism movement in response to neural stimuli. An example of an interacting system could be an artery depending on the proper function of elastic tissue and smooth muscle to regulate and deliver the proper amount of blood within the circulatory system.] [Assessment Boundary: Assessment does not include interactions and functions at the molecular or chemical reaction level.]

HS-LS1-2

How Cells Set the Division Plane

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