Name: Group Behavior: Hawk-Dove Game and Trading Exercise - Concept
Uploaded: 2019-01-29T11:04:46.000Z
Duration: 4 min 55 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

Pennsylvania State Academic Standards

9-12

Life Science

interdependent-relationships-in-ecosystems

Interdependent Relationships in Ecosystems

3.1.9-12.O

Group Behavior

lab manual sub articles

Lab Manual Sub Articles

<p>Have you ever wondered why some animals are solitary, while others are social? Let&#39;s consider these different hamsters, for example. Syrian Hamsters are territorial, therefore unwilling to share resources. Since they can&#39;t tolerate each other well, they will fight others entering their territory, and can injure each other, potentially fatally. On the other hand, Russian Hamsters typically live in small groups, sharing resources, and forming long-lasting bonds, especially with their mating partners. </p>
<p>Speaking of mating, you may have noticed that some animals exhibit something called Polymorphic Mating Systems, meaning that one sex, generally males, develop different phenotypes and mating strategies. In sea lions, for example, males are much bigger and have more powerful jaws and necks than the females. In terms of the different mating strategies, dominant males gather harems of females up on the beach and fight any challengers trying to take their mates. However, some non-dominant males stay in the water around these groups, as a strategy to mate with females who have left the beach temporarily. These distinct behavior strategies can affect an organism&#39;s fitness differently, and so one strategy may dominate others in a population over the course of evolution. </p>
<p>Let&#39;s look at this more closely. This preferred strategy, here called strategy one, is known as an Evolutionarily Stable Strategy, or ESS, because the payoff is greater than any alternative strategy. Males that employ the less-beneficial strategy two only do so if their risks of fighting to gain a group of females is extremely high and likely to be unsuccessful, perhaps because they are extremely young or very old. To understand how Evolutionarily Stable Strategies like this arise, biologists turn to game theory, which is the study of cooperative and conflict behaviors between individuals, using mathematical models. First, biologists assign benefits and costs to different strategies. Benefits might be gaining control of a resource, like food or mates. Costs might be whatever risks are incurred by trying to take possession of the benefit, like the potential negative cost of losing a fight. So, sometimes, strategies like sharing benefits with no cost, i.e. risk of injury in this example, can be a good alternative. </p>
<p>We can model the net gain of an individual after an interaction, using the hawk-dove game, in which hawks are always willing to fight for resources, and doves are always peaceful. In an interaction between two doves, each individual will receive equal benefit without any aggression costs. Using this equation, we can calculate the net gain for each individual, which is the benefit minus the cost. That&#39;s half B, in this case. In an interaction between a dove and a hawk, the hawk will receive all the benefit, but neither bird will incur immediate costs, because the doves don&#39;t engage in conflict. If two hawks interact, they will fight and split the benefit, but also incur some costs, which end up reducing their net gain. </p>
<p>So how do populations strike a balance? In a predominantly sharing group, uncooperative cheaters can out-compete other residents, like this guy, sleeping on his watch. Because of this, many cooperative populations have developed ways to prevent invasion, such as the ability to switch strategies, or identify and punish cheaters with actions like expulsion from the group. </p>
<p>In this lab, you will perform the hawk-dove game, and demonstrate the persistence of two different strategies in a population, and the circumstances that may affect their use.</p>

group behavior

<h4>Life in a Population</h4>
<p>Organisms in populations interact with one another in complex ways, where individuals compete for resources such as food, shelter, and mates. These interactions are costly since individuals invest energy to acquire the resource, therefore there are a variety of strategies that organisms adopt to gain an advantage over their competitors. This is observed clearly with polymorphic mating systems, in which one sex, predominantly males, display multiple mating strategies. For example, dominant male sea lions defend harems of females up on the beach, whereas non-dominant males try to increase their chances of mating by staying in or near the water, where they mate with females that have left the beach temporarily <sup>1</sup>. Other types of strategies may determine how often an individual will fight for a resource, or how willing they are to cooperate with others.</p>
<h4>Game Theory and Evolutionarily Stable Strategies</h4>
<p>In order to understand how different behavioral strategies evolve, ecologists turn to the game theory, which is a mathematical modeling approach that investigates the outcomes of multi-individual interactions, in which the payoff for any one individual depends its own strategy as well as the strategies of the others <sup>2</sup>. In this approach, the relative cost of the interaction and the benefits obtained from the resource determines the net gain or, in some cases, loss incurred by the organism. Different strategies can be assigned costs and benefits based on those faced by an organism. For example, fighting for control of a resource may provide a large benefit, but it also comes with costs that reduce an organism&#8217;s net gain. On the other hand, a strategy to avoid conflict will reap fewer benefits but incurs no costs.</p>
<p>The organisms with the best interaction strategy maximize their net gain, which in turn will contribute to their fitness. Therefore, over the course of evolutionary time, one strategy may arise that outcompetes all others in a population. This is called an evolutionary stable strategy (ESS) <sup>2</sup>. Populations evolve to adopt this strategy once it arises through mutation or is introduced through migration. Therefore, these strategies are mostly genetic or adopted at a young age, and changes in the strategies used by a population over time are determined by the action of natural selection. This concept is often illustrated using the Hawk-Dove game, which compares the success of two strategies for obtaining resources <sup>3</sup>. In this example, &#8220;hawks&#8221; are aggressive, and always fight for resources. &#8220;Doves,&#8221; on the other hand, are passive, and never fight for resources. In an interaction between two doves, resources are split evenly. When a hawk and a dove interact, the hawk always wins and obtains all of the resources. However, when two hawks interact, they split resources evenly and suffer the cost of their conflict as well <sup>3</sup>. Assessing these interactions over consecutive interactions allows modeling of how competing strategies in an evolving population fare against each other, thus emergence of ESS in an experimental setting.</p>
<p>As seen with the doves in the Hawk-Dove example, organisms not only compete against each other, but also display cooperative behaviors. The risk of being a population of 100% doves is the arrival of a cheater, or an individual that does not cooperate <sup>4</sup>. Cheaters can invade and outcompete the residents, therefore many cooperating populations have strategies in place to prevent invasion, including the ability to switch strategy as necessary or to identify and cheaters, and in some cases, to communicate this information to others in their group to decrease the chances of cheater success <sup>4</sup>.</p>
<h4>Social Interaction in Nature</h4>
<p>The existence of altruism, or a reduction in an organism&#8217;s immediate fitness in order to benefit another&#8217;s, in wild populations has been held up as a counterpoint to the theory of natural selection, however game theory shows how altruism can evolve under certain conditions. Assuming organisms can identify one another or reasonably expect to interact again in the future, acts of apparent altruism may actually be beneficial over time, as an organism can count on the favor being returned. This is seen when flocks of birds or herds of mammals feed collectively &#8211; one individual may sound an alarm call when they spot a predator, making them more vulnerable to attack <sup>5</sup>. The net benefit, however, of others frequently doing the same makes this act adaptive. Similarly, a vampire bat may regurgitate its food to feed hungry individuals. When it is unable to find food in future, it may benefit from the same behavior of another vampire bat <sup>6</sup>.</p>
<p>In addition to the interactions within a single species, the evolution of social interactions can take place between species as well. Besides predator-prey interactions, different species can compete for the same resources and develop strategies to gain advantage over others. However, individuals of a species may also interact cooperatively with members of another species. Interspecies interaction that require cooperation include mutualisms, or situations in which two organisms provide mutual benefits to one another. Many plants form mutualisms with nitrogen-fixing bacteria in the soil, whereby the plants provide complex sugars to bacteria in exchange for nitrogen <sup>7</sup>. Should bacteria fail to provide nitrogen, then plants can reduce the amount of sugars available.</p>
<p>Since cooperative interactions depend on either being able to identify or retaliate against cheaters, it is possible for invaders to take advantage of existing mutualisms in new environments. Invasive species have the potential to be closely related enough to local species that they are able to form mutualisms with other local species, but distantly related enough that existing recognition or defense mechanisms are ineffective. In Hawaii, an invasive dinoflagellate that forms a mutualism with coral takes more resources than local dinoflagellates. This has a negative impact on coral instead of the expected beneficial one <sup>8</sup>. Therefore, studying intra- and interspecies interactions not only allows understanding the development of behavioral strategies in evolving populations but is also essential to assess the behavioral phenotypes of invasive organisms to develop effective strategies against them.</p>
<h4>References</h4>
<ol>
	<li><strong>P&#246;rschmann, UlrichUniBi, et al.</strong> Male reproductive success and its behavioural correlates in a polygynous mammal, the Gal&#225;pagos sea lion (Zalophus wollebaeki). <em>Molecular Ecology. </em>2010, Vol. 19, 12 (2574-86).</li>
	<li><strong>Price, J. M Smith &#38; G. R.</strong> The Logic of Animal Conflict. <em>Nature. </em>1973, 246 (15-18).</li>
	<li><strong>Sigmund K, Nowak MA.</strong> Evolutionary game theory. <em>Curr Biology. </em>1999, Vol. 9, 14 (R503-5).</li>
	<li><strong>Rose, M. R.</strong> Cheating in Evolutionary Games. <em>J. Theor. Biol. </em>1978, 75 (21-34).</li>
	<li><strong>Trivers, R. L.</strong> Evolution of reciprocal altruism. <em>Q. Rev. Biol. </em>1971, Vol. 46, 1 (35-57).</li>
	<li><strong>Wilkinson, G. S.</strong> Reciprocal food sharing in the vampire bat. . <em>Nature. </em>1984, 308(181-84).</li>
	<li><strong>Francis M. Martin, St&#233;phane Uroz, David G. Barker.</strong> Ancestral alliances: Plant mutualistic symbioses with fungi and bacteria. <em>Science. </em>2017, Vol. 356, 6340 (eaad4501).</li>
	<li><strong>Tracy D.Ainsworth, Rebecca VegaThurber, Ruth D.Gates.</strong> The future of coral reefs: a microbial perspective. <em>Trends in Ecology &#38; Evolution. </em>2010, Vol. 25, 4 (233-40).</li>
</ol>

Group Behavior: Hawk-Dove Game and Trading Exercise - Concept

Life in a Population
Organisms in populations interact with one another in complex ways, where individuals compete for resources such as food, shelter, ...

Education

JoVE Lab Manual

Biology

Ecology

animal behavior

Animal Behavior

Drosophila as a Model Organism
The common fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster, is a widely used model organism in biology, though it may be more commonly ...

energy dynamics

Energy Dynamics

The Food Chain
Energy is one of the most important abiotic factors in an ecosystem and organisms in an ecosystem are connected by the flow of energy and ...

measuring biodiversity

Measuring Biodiversity

Diverse ecosystems are important for the health of the planet and our survival as humans; it is therefore incredibly important for us to understand and ...

extinction

Extinction

The History of Life on Earth
Fossils of organisms that were different from anything alive today had been documented as early as the 17th century, but it ...

species distribution and biogeography

Species Distribution and Biogeography

Species Distribution

Biogeography is the study of species distribution across geographic space and the processes that shape these distributions. This ...

population growth

Population Growth

Population Models
An ecological population is a group of individuals of a single species living in an area at the same time. To persist, a population must ...

community diversity

Community Diversity

Populations do not live in isolation; thus, every population interacts with others in certain ways. These interactions give rise to a network of ...

climate change

Climate Change

The certainty of climate change remains a public controversy despite the consensus among approximately 97% of active climate researchers, who not only ...

optimal foraging

Optimal Foraging

Optimal Foraging
Organisms must acquire and use resources in their environment to survive. While food is one of the primary resources organisms must ...

sexual selection and mate choice

Sexual Selection and Mate Choice

Choosing Mates

Evolutionary fitness is largely determined by the ability of an organism to survive and successfully produce offspring.  Critical to this ...

eusociality and division of labor

Eusociality and Division of Labor

Social Organization

Varying levels of social organization are observed within the animal kingdom, ranging from simple to highly complex. These systems ...

ecology

Explore how game theory, the hawk-dove game, cheaters, altruism, and mutualism shape animal behavior and evolution in populations.

Hawk-Dove Strategy in Animal Populations | JoVE K12

Minnesota Academic Standards in Science

3.2.1 9L.3.2.1.4

new-jersey-student-learning-standards-for-science

New Jersey Student Learning Standards for Science

High School

ecosystems-interactions-energy-and-dynamics

Ecosystems: Interactions, Energy, and Dynamics

HS-LS2-8

south-carolina-college-and-career-ready-science-standards

South Carolina College and Career Ready Science Standards

B-LS2-8.

Prepare cards, beads, recording tables, and classroom seating for the Hawk-Dove game and trading exercise used in high school science activities.

Hawk-Dove Game Materials Prep | JoVE K12

Explore the hawk-dove game and cheating vs cooperation activities, where students track strategy, benefits, and changing behavior across repeated rounds.

Hawk-Dove Strategy and Cooperation | JoVE K12

<ul><li><a href="#" data-time="0.0">The Hawk-Dove Game
</a></li><li><a href="#" data-time="177">Cheating and Cooperation Exercise
</a></li><li><a href="#" data-time="341">Results
</a></li></ul>

<ol class="note-items"><li data-note-item="1" data-parent-collapse="">The Hawk-Dove Game
<button class="expand">Expand</button><ul class="lab-items"><li data-sub-note-item="1-1"><div class="lab-step">NOTE: In this activity, you will play the hawk and dove game with a single partner and then with multiple partners to observe hypothetical costs and benefits of the antagonist or cooperative behavior respectively. 
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-2"><div class="lab-step">Before the activity starts, review the cost-benefit table so that you understand how to score the game. <a href="https://www.jove.com/CDNSource/lm/labs/33/Table_1_Group_behavior.xlsx" style="display:block;margin:20px;" target="_blank">Click Here to download Table 1</a>
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-3"><div class="lab-step">HYPOTHESES: The experimental hypothesis for this exercise could be that the dove strategy will become more frequent between repeated partners, and the hawk strategy will become more frequent when interactions are with a variety of partners. The null hypothesis could be that there will be no change in strategy over time with repeat or different partner combinations. NOTE: Benefit can be determined by looking at the left column and choosing the row that corresponds to the card you played. The box that corresponds to the choice of your partner can be found in the top row. For the purposes of this game, B equals four and C equals three. So depending on the cards played, player one here, which is you, would gain a score of two, four, zero or one half. 
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-4"><div class="lab-step">Collect a set of two game cards. 
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-5"><div class="lab-step">Take out the cards labeled hawk and dove and place them face down on the table or conceal them in your hands. 
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-6"><div class="lab-step">When the instructor gives the signal show either of the two cards to the student sitting across from you. Try to strategize how to receive the highest benefit from every interaction on your own but do not communicate with your partner. 
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-7"><div class="lab-step">In the Single Partner Recording Table (Table 2) provided by your instructor, note the cards played as well as the benefit you received for that round.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-8"><div class="lab-step">Repeat showing cards to the same partner and determining benefit on your instructor&#39;s signal for a total of 15 rounds.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-9"><div class="lab-step">At the end of those rounds, the student with the highest total benefit value was determined to be the &#8220;winner&#8221;, or the most fit.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-10"><div class="lab-step">As a class, determine the percentages of hawks and doves played as well as the average benefit received for each round, using this formula: Class average benefit=(sum total benefit)/(number of players)
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-11"><div class="lab-step">For the second game, and then for each round of play, one row of students should rotate to their right, leaving all players with a new partner.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-12"><div class="lab-step">Continue playing for 15 rounds or until students end up back in their starting positions, recording the data in the Multiple Partner Recording Table (Table 3) given to you by your instructor.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-13"><div class="lab-step">For each round, determine the percentages of hawks and doves played that round, as well as the average benefit received.
</div></li></ul></li><li data-note-item="2" data-parent-collapse="">Cheating and Cooperation Exercise
<button class="expand">Expand</button><ul class="lab-items"><li data-sub-note-item="2-1"><div class="lab-step">NOTE: In this activity, you will exchange benefits, represented by colored or similar items, with your classmates. In this simulation, a cheater is defined as a person who gives fewer benefits than they receive. During this activity, you will observe the frequency of cheating behavior over time. 
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="2-2"><div class="lab-step">HYPOTHESES: The experimental hypothesis is that cheaters will receive fewer benefits over time and cooperators will continue to provide equal benefits to one another. The null hypothesis is that the frequency of cheaters and cooperators does not change over time. 
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="2-3"><div class="lab-step">Each person should collect beads of one color to represent a tangible benefit, as well as one paper bag and a three-ring binder.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="2-4"><div class="lab-step">Get into a group of three so that all members have objects of the same color.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="2-5"><div class="lab-step">Now find another group with a different color to pair with. In each round, partners will exchange benefits without knowing what they are receiving from their partner and without discussion within their group.  NOTE: Benefits of a different color from your starting color are worth twice as much.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="2-6"><div class="lab-step">Turn face to face with a member from the other group while still being able to conceal the objects in your possession.  TIP:<strong> </strong>Setting up a screen using a notebook or sitting behind a desk can be helpful here.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="2-7"><div class="lab-step">When given a signal from the instructor, place zero to two benefits into the paper bag and pass it to your partner.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="2-8"><div class="lab-step">Simultaneously, receive the bag from your partner and then remove the benefits from the bag.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="2-9"><div class="lab-step">Make a note of how many benefits you gave away and how many you received in the Cheating and Cooperation Table (Table 4) provided by your instructor.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="2-10"><div class="lab-step">Turn to a new member from the other group and repeat the exchange.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="2-11"><div class="lab-step">Rotate through all of the members of the other group for as many rounds as the instructor determines - which will not be revealed until the game ends so as not to alter player behavior.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="2-12"><div class="lab-step">Once the game has ended, note for each round in the cheating and cooperation table whether you gave more than your partner, received more from them or if you gave the same amount.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="2-13"><div class="lab-step">Now total up all of the benefits in your possession, with benefits you&#39;ve received from the other group being worth twice as much.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="2-14"><div class="lab-step">For each round, the whole class should total up the number of cheaters - with cheaters defined as those who gave less than they received.
</div></li></ul></li><li data-note-item="3" data-parent-collapse="">Results
<button class="expand">Expand</button><ul class="lab-items"><li data-sub-note-item="3-1"><div class="lab-step">For both the single partner hawk-dove game and the multiple partners hawk-dove game, use the whole class data to plot the percentages as two separate lines - one for the percentage of hawks, and one for the percentage of doves, for each of the 15 rounds.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="3-2"><div class="lab-step">Take note of whether the cards played changed as more rounds were played.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="3-3"><div class="lab-step">Manipulate the values for B and C to see if you can find the point at which values of B and C would render the hawk strategy no longer effective (this would be the point when there is no benefit to choosing the hawk strategy over always choosing the dove strategy).
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="3-4"><div class="lab-step">As a class, use the data from the cheating and cooperation activity to make a graph showing the percentage of rounds each individual player cheated versus the amount of benefits they ended with.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="3-5"><div class="lab-step">Consider whether it is better to be a cheater or a cooperator in this scenario and discuss as a class what makes this scenario different from the hawk-dove game.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="3-6"><div class="lab-step">Now, use the class data to graph the percentage of cheaters against the number of rounds, and look for any trends over time.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="3-7"><div class="lab-step">Consider which type of strategy would most likely evolve in a setting where partners interact repeatedly.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="3-8"><div class="lab-step">Then, note which tactic might be beneficial for a species that relies on cooperation. 
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="3-9"><div class="lab-step">Discuss as a class what would likely happen if you increased or decreased the relative value of the benefits you receive.
</div></li></ul></li></ol>

Group Behavior: Hawk-Dove Game and Trading Exercise - Procedure

The Hawk-Dove Game
ExpandNOTE: In this activity, you will play the hawk and dove game with a single partner and then with multiple partners to observe ...

<p>In this activity, you will play the hawk and dove game with a single partner and with multiple partners to observe hypothetical costs and benefits of the antagonist or cooperative behavior respectively. Before the activity starts, review the cost-benefit table so that you understand how to score the game. The experimental hypothesis for this exercise could be that the dove strategy will become more frequent between repeated partners, and the hawk strategy will become more frequent when interactions are with a variety of partners.</p><p>The null hypothesis could be that there will be no change in strategy over time with repeat or different partner combinations. Benefit can be determined by looking at the left column and choosing the row that corresponds to the card you played. The box that corresponds to the choice of your partner can be found in the top row.</p><p>For the purposes of this game, B equals four and C equals three. So depending on the cards played, player one here, which is you, would gain a score of two, four, zero or one half. Collect a set of two game cards.</p><p>Take out the cards labeled hawk and dove and place them face down on the table or conceal them in your hands. When the instructor gives the signal show either of the two cards to the student sitting across from you. Try to strategize how to receive the highest benefit from every interaction on your own but do not communicate with your partner.</p><p>In the single partner recording table note the cards played as well as the benefit you received for that round. Repeat showing cards to the same partner and determining benefit on your instructor's signal for a total of 15 rounds. At the end of those rounds, the student with the highest total benefit value was determined to be the winner or the most fit.</p><p>As a class, determine the percentages of hawks and doves played as well as the average benefit received for each round. For the second game, and then for each round of play, one row of students should rotate to their right, leaving all players with a new partner. Continue playing for 15 rounds or until students end up back in their starting positions.</p><p>Take notes in the multiple partner recording table. Again, determine the percentages of hawks and doves played for each round as well as the average benefit received. In this activity, you will exchange benefits, represented by colored beads, with your classmates.</p><p>In this simulation, a cheater is defined as a person who gives fewer benefits than they receive. During this activity, you will observe the frequency of cheating behavior over time. In this activity, the experimental hypothesis is that cheaters will receive fewer benefits over time and cooperators will continue to provide equal benefits to one another.</p><p>The null hypothesis is that the frequency of cheaters and cooperators does not change over time. Each person should collect beads of one color to represent a tangible benefit as well as one paper bag and a three-ring binder. Get into a group of three so that all members have objects of the same color.</p><p>Now find another group with a different color to pair with. In each round, partners will exchange benefits without knowing what they are receiving from their partner and without discussion within their group. Benefits of a different color from your starting color are worth twice as much.</p><p>Turn face to face with a member from the other group while still being able to conceal the objects in your possession. Setting up a screen using a notebook or sitting behind a desk can be helpful here. When given a signal from the instructor, place zero to two benefits into the paper bag and pass it to your partner.</p><p>Simultaneously, receive the bag from your partner and then remove the benefits from the bag. Make a note of how many benefits you gave away and how many you received in the cheating and cooperation table. Turn to a new member from the other group and repeat the exchange.</p><p>Rotate through all of the members of the other group for as many rounds as the instructor determines which will not be revealed until the game ends so as not to alter player behavior. Once the game has ended, note for each round in the cheating and cooperation table whether you gave more than your partner, received more from them or if you gave the same amount. Now total up all of the benefits in your possession with benefits you've received from the other group being worth twice as much.</p><p>For each round, the whole class should total up the number of cheaters. Cheaters are those who gave less than they received. For both the single partner hawk-dove game and the multiple partners hawk-dove game, use the whole class data to plot the percentages as two separate lines.</p><p>One for the percentage of hawks and one for the percentage of doves for each of the 15 rounds. How do the cards change as more rounds are played? How do they differ between the two game setups?</p><p>Let's review the cost-benefit table one more time. At what values of B and C would the hawk strategy no longer be effective? This would be the point when there is no benefit to choosing the hawk strategy over always choosing the dove strategy?</p><p>Plug in some values for B and C to see if you can find this point. As a class, use the data from activity two to make a graph showing the percentage of rounds each individual player cheated versus the amount of benefits they ended with. Is it better to be a cheater or a cooperator in this scenario?</p><p>Discuss what makes this scenario different from the hawk-dove game? Now use the class data to graph the percentage of cheaters against the number of rounds. Is there a trend over time?</p><p>Which type of strategy would most likely evolve in a setting where partners interact repeatedly? What tactic might be beneficial for a species that relies on cooperation? What would likely happen if you increased or decreased the relative value of the benefits you receive?</p><p>Why do you think this may be the case?</p>

<ul><li><a href="#" data-time="0.0">Creating Materials for the Hawk-Dove Game and Trading Exercise
</a></li></ul>

<ol class="note-items"><li data-note-item="1" data-parent-collapse="">Creating Materials for the Hawk-Dove Game and Trading Exercise
<button class="expand">Expand</button><ul class="lab-items"><li data-sub-note-item="1-1"><div class="lab-step">Use card stock paper to create a set of two cards for each student, and label one &#8220;dove&#8221; and the other &#8220;hawk&#8221;. NOTE: The cards should be opaque and there should be no obvious differences between the cards. 
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-2"><div class="lab-step">Gather small objects in two colors &#8211; beads work well. Make sure there are enough for each student to have 20 of the same color and each half of the class to have a different color.
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-3"><div class="lab-step">Print the single partner recording table, the multiple partner recording table, and the cheating and cooperation tables so that there is enough for the class. <a href="https://www.jove.com/CDNSource/lm/labs/33/Table_2_Group_behavior.xlsx" style="display:block;margin:20px;" target="_blank">Click Here to download Table 2</a> <a href="https://www.jove.com/CDNSource/lm/labs/33/Table_3_Group_behavior.xlsx" style="display:block;margin:20px;" target="_blank">Click Here to download Table 3</a> <a href="https://www.jove.com/CDNSource/lm/labs/33/Table_4_Group_behavior.xlsx" style="display:block;margin:20px;" target="_blank">Click Here to download Table 4</a>
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-4"><div class="lab-step">Provide the cost benefit table for students to review by printing copies or displaying the table so that students can see it throughout the activities. <a href="https://www.jove.com/CDNSource/lm/labs/33/Table_1_Group_behavior.xlsx" style="display:block;margin:20px;" target="_blank">Click Here to download Table 1</a>
</div></li><li data-sub-note-item="1-5"><div class="lab-step">Arrange the classroom so that the students can arrange themselves into either two concentric circles or two parallel lines. The lines should have an equal number of students in each line so that partners are sitting across from each other. 
</div></li></ul></li></ol>

<div class="section-question"><h4 class="question-sect">What are polymorphic mating systems?</h4><p>Polymorphic mating systems are physical characteristics and other mating strategies one sex of a species, usually the male, develops to increase chances of mating. 
</p></div><div class="section-question"><h4 class="question-sect">What is an Evolutionary Stable Strategy (ESS)?</h4><p>An ESS is the behavioral strategy that provided higher fitness to individuals and became dominant over other strategies over the course of evolution.
</p></div><div class="section-question"><h4 class="question-sect">What is the Game Theory?</h4><p>It is the study of cooperative and competitive interactions between individuals with mathematical models. Game theory helps estimate costs and benefits associated with a strategy against others.
</p></div><div class="section-question"><h4 class="question-sect">What is the hawk-dove game?</h4><p>Hawk-dove game is a popular example used to illustrate the principles of ESS and practice application of game theory. One player acts as a hawk (competitive) or a dove (cooperative). Playing this game allows comparison of the success of these two strategies for obtaining resources.
</p></div><div class="section-question"><h4 class="question-sect">What is altruism?</h4><p>Altruism is the reduction in an organism&#8217;s immediate fitness in order to benefit another&#8217;s. 
</p></div>

Group Behavior: Hawk-Dove Game and Trading Exercise - Prep

Creating Materials for the Hawk-Dove Game and Trading Exercise
ExpandUse card stock paper to create a set of two cards for each student, and label one ...

<p>To prepare for the exercise, use card stock paper to create a set of two cards for each student that read hawk and dove. The cards should be opaque and there should be no obvious differences between the cards. Gather small objects in two colors.</p><p>Make sure there are enough for each student to have 20 of the same color and each half of the class to have a different color. Print the single partner recording table, the multiple partner recording table, and the cheating and cooperation tables so that there is enough for the class. Also provide the cost benefit table for students to review by printing copies or displaying the table so that students can see it throughout the activities.</p><p>Finally, setup the classroom so that the students can arrange themselves into either two concentric circles or two parallel lines. The lines should have an equal number of students in each line so that partners are sitting across from each other. Please take time to review the material list and the student protocol video to be fully prepped for the lab.</p>

What is an Ecosystem?

Overview

An ecosystem is the interaction between all abiotic and biotic factors in an environment and can be classified as terrestrial or aquatic. ...

Trophic Levels

All organisms in an ecosystem occupy a trophic level in the food chain. The lowest level consists of primary producers, which synthesize their food from ...

Primary Production

The total amount of energy acquired by primary producers in an ecosystem is called gross primary production (GPP). However, of this energy, producers use ...

Production Efficiency

Net production efficiency (NPE) is the efficiency at which organisms assimilate energy into biomass for the next trophic level. Due to low metabolic rates ...

Trophic Efficiency

Trophic level transfer efficiency (TLTE) is a measure of the total energy transfer from one trophic level to the next. Due to extensive energy loss as ...

Life Histories

Constrained by limited energy and resources, organisms must compromise between offspring quantity and parental investment. This trade-off is represented ...

Energy Budgets and Reproductive Strategies

Organisms must balance energy intake with the energy required for growth, maintenance, and reproduction. These trade-offs result in a variety of ...

Population size is dynamic, increasing with birth rates and immigration, and decreasing with death rates and emigration. In ideal conditions with ...

Ecological Niches

All organisms have a position within an ecosystem. The complete set of living and nonliving factors&#x2014;including food resources, climate, and ...

Ecological Succession

Ecological succession is influenced by the processes of facilitation, inhibition, and toleration. Facilitation occurs when early successional species ...

Keystone Species

Measures of species biodiversity, such as richness (i.e., the number of species present) and evenness (i.e., their relative abundance), describe an ...

Symbiosis

Symbiotic relationships are long-term, close interactions between individuals of different species that affect the distribution and abundance of those ...

Competition

When organisms require the same limited resources within an environment, they may have to compete for them. Competition is a net-negative interaction. ...

Predator-Prey Interactions

Predators consume prey for energy. Predators that acquire prey and prey that avoid predation both increase their chances of survival and reproduction ...

Ecological Disturbance

An ecological disturbance is a temporary disruption in the environment resulting from abiotic, biotic, or anthropogenic factors, causing a pronounced ...

Students who demonstrate understanding can use mathematical and/or computational representations to support explanations of factors that affect carrying capacity of ecosystems at different scales.  Assessment Boundary: Assessment does not include deriving mathematical equations to make comparisons.

3.1.9-12.I

What are Populations and Communities?

Populations are groups of individuals of the same species that inhabit a shared environment. Communities include multiple co-existing, interacting ...

Distribution and Dispersion

Ecology is the study of how organisms interact with their environment and with one another. An important aspect of ecology is understanding where species ...

Students who demonstrate understanding can use mathematical representations to support and revise explanations based on evidence about factors affecting biodiversity and populations in ecosystems of different scales. Assessment Boundary: Assessment is limited to provided data.

3.1.9-12.L

Students who demonstrate understanding can evaluate the claims, evidence, and reasoning that the complex interactions in ecosystems maintain relatively consistent numbers and types of organisms in stable conditions, but changing conditions may result in a new ecosystem. Assessment Boundary: N/A

3.1.9-12.M

What is Weather?

Overview

Weather refers to the current state of atmospheric conditions at a specific time and place. Weather is temporary and is influenced by the ...

What is Climate?

Climate refers to the prevailing weather conditions in a specific area over an extended period. As the saying goes, &#8220;Climate is what you expect. ...

Global Climate Change

Throughout its ~4.5 billion year history, the Earth has experienced periods of warming and cooling. However, the current drastic increase in global ...

Conservation of Declining Populations

Conservation of declining population focuses on ways of detecting, diagnosing, and halting a population decline. The approach uses methods to prevent ...

Habitat Fragmentation

Habitat fragmentation describes the division of a more extensive, continuous habitat into smaller, discontinuous areas. Human activities such as land ...

What is Biodiversity?

Biodiversity describes the variety of living things at multiple organizational levels: genetic, species and ecosystem diversity. Species diversity ...

Threats to Biodiversity

There have been five major extinction events throughout geological history, resulting in the elimination of biodiversity, followed by a rebound of species ...

Biodiversity and Human Values

Human civilization relies on biodiversity in many ways. Sudden changes in species biodiversity result in environmental changes that can modify weather ...

What is Conservation Biology?

Conservation biology is a scientific field that focuses on the preservation of biodiversity in order to protect ecosystems while meeting the needs of the ...

Sustainable Development

As the human population continues to grow and use resources, we must be mindful of our planet&rsquo;s natural limits. Sustainable development provides a ...

Conservation of Small Populations

Small population sizes put a species at extreme risk of extinction due to a lack of variation, and a consequent decrease in adaptability. This weakens ...

Externalities

Externalities are outcomes of economic activities that affect third parties who are not directly involved in it. These impacts can be either positive or ...

Private Cost and Benefit

Private cost is the expenses a business incurs while producing a good or the price paid by an individual in purchasing a good.
For example, consider a ...

Social Cost and Benefit

Private costs and benefits are the financial impacts on individuals or businesses directly involved in a transaction.
However, when an additional unit of ...

Negative Externalities

A negative externality is a cost suffered by an unrelated third party due to an economic transaction.
The costs created by negative externalities are not ...

Positive Externalities

Positive externalities occur when a third party benefits from an economic transaction without being directly involved.
Take vaccines as an example. When ...

The Efficient Level of Pollution

Producing goods often results in pollution as a byproduct, but eliminating all pollution isn&#39;t practical. Doing so would mean halting the production ...

spatial-multiobjective-optimization-agricultural-conservation

Spatial Multiobjective Optimization of Agricultural Conservation Practices using a SWAT Model and an Evolutionary Algorithm

Finding the cost-efficient (i.e., lowest-cost) ways of targeting conservation practice investments for the achievement of specific water quality goals ...

watershed-planning-within-a-quantitative-scenario-analysis-framework

Watershed Planning within a Quantitative Scenario Analysis Framework

There is a critical need for tools and methodologies capable of managing aquatic systems within heavily impacted watersheds. Current efforts often fall ...

Students who demonstrate understanding can design, evaluate, and refine a solution for reducing the impacts of human activities on the environment and biodiversity. Assessment Boundary: N/A

3.1.9-12.N

In- and Out-Groups

People all belong to a gender, race, age, and social economic group. These groups provide a powerful source of our identity and self-esteem (Tajfel &amp; ...

Social Facilitation

Not all intergroup interactions lead to&nbsp;negative outcomes.&nbsp;Sometimes, being in a group situation can improve performance. Social ...

Social Loafing

Another way in which a group presence can affect&nbsp;performance is social loafing&mdash;the exertion of less effort by a person working together with a ...

Group Polarization

Group polarization is&nbsp;the strengthening of an original group attitude following&nbsp;the discussion of views within a group (Teger &amp; Pruitt, ...

Groupthink

When in group settings, we are often influenced by the thoughts, feelings, and behaviors around us. Groupthink is another phenomenon of conformity where ...

Deindividuation

Deindividuation is a form of social influence on an individual&rsquo;s behavior such that the individual engages in unusual or non-normal behavior while ...

Students who demonstrate understanding can evaluate the evidence for the role of group behavior on individual and species' chances to survive and reproduce. Assessment Boundary: N/A

Understanding Species and Reproductive Barriers

A species is a group of organisms that interbreed and produce fertile offspring. Typically, individuals of the same species appear similar and share ...

Formation of Species

Speciation describes the formation of one or more new species from one or sometimes multiple original species. The resulting species are discrete from the ...

Speciation Rates

Speciation can proceed at markedly different rates, and evolutionary biologists commonly describe these differences through the models of gradualism and ...

Genetics of Speciation

Speciation is the evolutionary process resulting in the formation of new, distinct species&#x2014;groups of reproductively isolated populations.The ...

Hybrid Zones

Hybrid zones are narrow regions where two closely related species interact, mate, and produce hybrids. Relative to either parent species, hybrids may ...

Correlation of Experimental Data

A key use of dimensional analysis is to efficiently manage, interpret, and correlate experimental data.
Dimensional analysis alone cannot fully solve a ...

Modeling and Similitude

A scaled model of a dam is tested in a controlled environment to observe how it will manage water flow, turbulence, and pressure.
This setup predicts the ...

Typical Model Studies

Typical model studies analyze scaled-down systems to predict fluid behavior, focusing on interactions with free surfaces and flow around immersed bodies.
...

design-example-creating-a-hydraulic-model-of-a-dam-spillway

Design Example: Creating a Hydraulic Model of a Dam Spillway

A hydraulic model of a dam spillway is often created by scaling down the design, typically to a 1:15 ratio, to replicate key flow characteristics such as ...

Students who demonstrate understanding can create or revise a simulation to test a solution to mitigate adverse impacts of human activity on biodiversity. Assessment Boundary: N/A

3.1.9-12.V

Group Behavior

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Life in a Population

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