Name: research questions and falsifiable hypotheses
Uploaded: 2020-02-12T11:07:38.000Z
Duration: 2 min 40 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

Virginia  Standards of Learning

HIgh School

Chemistry

CH.1

CH.1.c

The Scientific Method

To conduct empirical studies, researchers use the scientific method&mdash;a stepwise process for evaluating ideas and answering questions.

During the first step, she could make an observation: when students are triggered by something annoying, they behave differently. Some are calm, breathing slowly, and interacting with generosity, whereas others react with anger&mdash;their hearts are beating rapidly as they redirect their rage.

Such observations prompt her to ask questions, like could the distressed individuals alter their responses and replace negative emotions with more composed reactions?

After formulating questions, she can then form hypotheses&mdash;potential explanations for the observations that lead to specific testable predictions.

In this case, one hypothesis is that meditation training promotes compassion, which prompts the prediction that students who meditate will show fewer&nbsp;aggressive outbursts after being triggered by a stressor relative to those who do not meditate.

Often, hypotheses fit within the context of a theory&mdash;a set of principles that attempts to explain how several observations are related. In this example, the current assumption could be grounded in Polyvagal theory, whi

the scientific method

Research is what makes the difference between facts and opinions. Facts are observable realities, and opinions are personal judgments, conclusions, or attitudes that may or may not be accurate. In the scientific community, facts can be established only using evidence collected through empirical research.

The Process of Scientific Research 

Scientific knowledge is advanced through a process known as the scientific method. Basically, ideas (in the form of theories and hypotheses) are tested against the real world (in the form of empirical observations), and those empirical observations lead to more ideas that are tested against the real world, and so on. In this sense, the scientific process is circular.

A theory is a well-developed set of ideas that propose an explanation for observed phenomena. Theories are repeatedly checked against the world, but they tend to be too complex to be tested all at once; instead, researchers create hypotheses to test specific aspects of a theory. A hypothesis is a testable prediction about how the world will behave if our idea is correct, and it is often worded as an if-then statement (e.g., if I study all night, I will get a passing grade on the test). The hypothesis is extremely important because it bridges the gap between the realm of ideas and the real world. As specific hypotheses are tested, theories are modified and refined to reflect and incorporate the result of these tests.

To see how this process works, let&rsquo;s consider a specific theory and a hypothesis that might be generated from that theory. For example, the James-Lange theory of emotion asserts that emotional experience relies on the physiological arousal associated with the emotional state. If you walked out of your home and discovered a very aggressive snake waiting on your doorstep, your heart would begin to race and your stomach churn. According to the James-Lange theory, these physiological changes would result in your feeling of fear. A hypothesis that could be derived from this theory might be that a person who is unaware of the physiological arousal that the sight of the snake elicits will not feel fear.

A scientific hypothesis is also falsifiable, or capable of being shown to be incorrect. While Sigmund Freud held numerous&nbsp;ideas to explain various human behaviors,&nbsp;a major criticism of Freud&rsquo;s theories is that many of his ideas are not falsifiable.&nbsp;For example, it is impossible to imagine empirical observations that would disprove the existence of the id, the ego, and the superego&mdash;the three elements of personality described in Freud&rsquo;s theories. Despite this, Freud&rsquo;s theories are widely taught in introductory psychology texts because of their historical significance for personality psychology and psychotherapy, and these remain the root of all modern forms of therapy.

In contrast, the James-Lange theory does generate falsifiable hypotheses.&nbsp;Some individuals who suffer significant injuries to their spinal columns are unable to feel the bodily changes that often accompany emotional experiences. Therefore, we could test the hypothesis by determining how emotional experiences differ between individuals who have the ability to detect these changes in their physiological arousal and those who do not. In fact, this research has been conducted and while the emotional experiences of people deprived of an awareness of their physiological arousal may be less intense, they still experience emotion (Chwalisz, Diener, &amp; Gallagher, 1988).

Scientific research&rsquo;s dependence on falsifiability allows for great confidence in the information that it produces. Typically, by the time information is accepted by the scientific community, it has been tested repeatedly.

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This text is adapted from <a href="https://cnx.org/contents/Sr8Ev5Og@10.24:Hp5zMFYB@16/2-1-Why-Is-Research-Important" target="_blank">OpenStax, Psychology. OpenStax CNX.</a>

Research is what makes the difference between facts and opinions. Facts are observable realities, and opinions are personal judgments, conclusions, or ...

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Social Psychology

Foundations of Social Psychology

Research Methods

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

research questions and falsifiable hypotheses

Research questions and falsifiable hypotheses help scientists separate facts from opinions. Facts are observable realities. Opinions are personal judgments, conclusions, or attitudes that may or may not be accurate. In science, facts are established with evidence from empirical research, which means research based on observation and experience.

Scientific knowledge grows through the scientific method, a process that connects ideas with real-world evidence. Researchers test theories and hypotheses against empirical observations. Those observations then lead to new ideas that can be tested again. This makes the scientific process circular.

A theory is a well-developed set of ideas that explains observed phenomena. Theories are often too complex to test all at once. For that reason, researchers form hypotheses to test specific parts of a theory. A hypothesis is a testable prediction about how the world will behave if an idea is correct. It is often written as an if-then statement, such as, if I study all night, I will get a passing grade on the test.

Hypotheses are important because they bridge ideas and the real world. As scientists test specific hypotheses, they revise and refine their theories. One example comes from the James-Lange theory of emotion. This theory says that emotional experience depends on physiological arousal linked to the emotion. If someone saw a very aggressive snake on the doorstep, the heart might race and the stomach might churn. According to the theory, those body changes would produce fear.

A scientific hypothesis must also be falsifiable, which means it can be shown to be incorrect. Freud proposed many ideas about human behavior, but many of them are not falsifiable. For example, it is hard to imagine observations that would disprove the id, ego, and superego in Freud’s personality theory. Even so, Freud’s ideas are still taught in introductory psychology because of their historical importance for personality psychology and psychotherapy, and they remain the root of modern therapy.

The James-Lange theory does lead to falsifiable hypotheses. Some people with serious spinal cord injuries cannot feel bodily changes that often go with emotion. Scientists can test whether emotional experience differs between people who can detect physiological arousal and those who cannot. Research has shown that people without awareness of these bodily changes may feel emotions less intensely, but they still experience emotion. Because scientific research depends on falsifiability, the information it produces can be trusted more when it has been tested many times.

Research Questions and Falsifiable Hypotheses

research-questions-and-falsifiable-hypotheses

Research questions and falsifiable hypotheses help scientists separate facts from opinions. Facts are observable realities. Opinions are personal judgments, conclusions, or attitudes that may or may not be accurate. In science, facts are established with evidence from empirical research, which means research based on observation and experience. Scientific knowledge grows through the scientific method, a process that connects ideas with real-world evidence. Researchers test theories and...

case studies

Studying Rare Cases in Psychology

Case studies help psychologists study rare people or rare situations in detail. This research method is used in observational research when scientists focus on one person or just a few individuals. Because the group is so small, researchers can collect very rich information and gain a deep understanding of the case. A well-known example is the New York Times story about Krista and Tatiana Hogan, Canadian twin girls who are conjoined at the head. Scientists have evidence that the twins may be...

naturalistic observations

Watching Behavior in Real Settings

Naturalistic observation is a research method for watching behavior in its real setting. Researchers try to record what people or animals do without changing the situation. The goal is to see behavior as naturally as possible. People often act differently when they know they are being watched. That is why observers must be inconspicuous, or hard to notice. In a classroom hand-washing example, a student observer might stand at a sink and pretend to put in contact lenses while secretly recording...

surveys

Survey Data in Psychology

Survey data in psychology comes from sets of questions answered by research participants. Surveys can be given on paper, online, or by speaking with people directly. They are usually quick to complete, which makes them useful when researchers want information from many people. A survey helps researchers study a sample, which is a smaller group chosen from a population, the larger group they want to understand. Because surveys can reach larger and more diverse samples, the results may reflect...

archival research

Using Records to Study Behavior

Archival research uses existing records and data sets to study behavior and answer research questions. Researchers do not collect new data from participants in this method. Instead, they look back at records that already exist to find patterns and relationships. A researcher might, for example, examine the academic records of students who enrolled in college over the past ten years. Those records could show how long students took to finish their degrees, along with course loads, grades, and...

longitudinal research

Tracking the Same People Over Time

Longitudinal research tracks the same group of people over time. Researchers use this design when they want to study change in human development or across the lifespan. Data are collected from the same participants repeatedly over an extended period. A simple example is a survey on dietary habits. The same people might answer at age 20, again at age 30, and again at age 40. This repeated testing helps researchers see how responses change over the years. Longitudinal research can also help...

cross-sectional research

Studying Age Groups at One Point in Time

Cross-sectional research compares different groups of people at the same time. Researchers use it when they want to study how a trait or behavior varies across age groups or other segments of the population. For example, a researcher interested in dietary habits could compare 20-year-old, 30-year-old, and 40-year-old individuals in one study. This approach does not require waiting 20 years to track how one group changes from decade to decade. It is a shorter-term way to collect data. <br...

group design

Experimental and Control Groups

Experimental and control groups are the two parts of a basic experiment. The groups should be the same except for one difference: the experimental manipulation. The experimental group gets the treatment or variable being tested, and the control group does not. Because that is the only planned difference, researchers can link any change between the groups to the manipulation rather than to chance. A clear example is a study on violent television and children’s behavior. In that setup, the...

factorial design

Factorial Analysis in ANOVA

Factorial analysis is a research design that uses ANOVA, or analysis of variance, to test how more than one independent variable affects a dependent variable. The independent variables are also called factors. A worker productivity study can show how salary and skill level may each influence the result. In this example, salary can be grouped into three levels: low, moderate, and high. Skill level can be grouped into two levels: entry level and experienced. The study would be called a two-way...

the placebo effect

How Expectations Shape Placebo Results

The placebo effect shows how expectations and beliefs can shape what people experience. In some situations, simply expecting something to happen can make it feel real. This effect is often discussed when scientists test a new medicine. A common example is a study on depression treatment. A pharmaceutical company may compare two groups. The experimental group receives the medication, and the control group does not. To keep participants from knowing which treatment they got, researchers may give...

blind procedures

Single-Blind and Double-Blind Studies

Single-blind and double-blind studies help researchers reduce bias in an experiment. Bias can happen when expectations affect how a study is carried out or how results are read. In this kind of research, blinding keeps those expectations from shaping the outcome. In a single-blind study, the participants do not know whether they are in the experimental group or the control group. The researcher who designed the study still knows who is in each group. This setup helps limit the effect of...

ethics in research

Research Oversight for Human and Animal Studies

Research oversight protects human dignity and safety in modern science. Good research must be ethical, and researchers must show that their studies meet that standard. This idea is especially important when studies involve people or animals. Studies with human participants follow strict rules to prevent harm. Research institutions that receive federal support for human studies must have access to an institutional review board, or IRB. An IRB is a committee made up of administrators,...

correlations

Reading Correlation Coefficients

Correlation describes a relationship between two or more variables. It does not automatically mean that one variable causes the other. When variables are correlated, one changes as the other changes, and that relationship can be measured with a correlation coefficient. A correlation coefficient is a number from -1 to +1. It is usually written as r. The number shows the strength of the relationship. Values closer to 1, whether positive or negative, show a stronger relationship and make changes...

cause and effect

Why Correlation Can Mislead

Correlation can be misleading when two variables move together for a different reason. A confounding variable, or hidden factor, may be causing the pattern instead of one variable directly affecting the other. The ice cream and crime example shows this clearly. When temperatures rise, more people go outside, buy ice cream, and may also have more chances for conflict. A correlation does not prove causation. Even when a relationship looks strong, we should not assume that one variable causes the...

reliability and validity

Testing Measurement Quality in Research

Reliable and valid measurements are essential in data collection and research. Reliability means a tool or test gives the same result in a consistent way. In psychology, that means the instruments used to collect data should produce reproducible results. Consistency alone is not enough. A kitchen scale can show the same reading every time, but it can still be wrong if it is not calibrated correctly. In that case, the scale is reliable because it is consistent, but it does not measure the...

regression toward the mean

Regression Toward the Mean in Data

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measures of central tendency

Mean, Median, and Mode in Data

Mean, median, and mode are the main ways to describe the center of a data set. The center is also a way to describe location. The mean and the median are the two most widely used measures of center. The mean is the arithmetic mean, which most people call the average. In everyday use, average and mean are often used to mean the same thing. The mode is another measure of center. It is the value that appears most often in a data set. If two values occur the same number of times, the data set is...

variation: normal distribution, range, and standard deviation

variation-normal-distribution-range-and-standard-deviation

Measuring Data Spread with Range and Variance

Variation describes how far scores are from each other in a data set. In psychology, researchers organize measurements of traits, features, or characteristics, called variables, in different ways. Qualitative data, such as ethnicity, can be counted to show the proportion and variety of groups in a sample or population. Quantitative data allow for more calculations, including measures of central tendency and variability. The mean, mode, and median are central tendency measures. They identify a...

statistical significance

Testing Whether Group Differences Matter

Statistical analysis helps determine whether differences between an experimental group and a control group are meaningful. After data are collected, researchers check whether the results are likely to be real or just due to chance. If a difference is caused by chance, it is not considered meaningful. In psychology, a group difference is usually called significant when the chance of it happening by accident is 5 percent or less. Another way to say this is that if the experiment were repeated...

key terms and concepts

Learn how theories, testable hypotheses, and falsifiability shape scientific research. See how evidence turns ideas into trusted scientific facts.

Research Questions and Falsifiable Hypotheses | JoVE K12

JoVE Core Social Psychology offers a comprehensive learning experience on the principles of social behavior through concise, animated video lessons. The series explores key topics such as self-concept, social cognition, group dynamics, stereotypes, and relationships. It provides a structured foundation for understanding human behavior in social situations. Students gain insights into how individuals think, feel, and behave in social contexts while examining the psychological processes that influence interactions and judgments. By integrating theory with real-world applications, these lessons offer a clear and engaging approach to mastering essential concepts in social psychology.

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Nature of Science

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SC.912.N.2.1

SC.912.N.4

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Biology

BIO.1

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The scientific method is a detailed, empirical problem-solving process used by biologists and other scientists. This iterative approach involves ...

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The student will demonstrate an understanding of scientific and engineering practices by asking questions and defining problems
• ask questions that arise from careful observation of phenomena, examination of a model or theory, unexpected results, and/or to seek additional information
• determine which questions can be investigated within the scope of the school laboratory 
• make hypotheses that specify what happens to a dependent variable when an independent variable is manipulated
• generate hypotheses based on research and scientific principles 
• define design problems that involve the development of a process or system with interacting components, criteria and constraints

CH.1.a

Case Studies

There are many research methods available to psychologists in their efforts to understand, describe, and explain behavior and the cognitive and biological ...

Naturalistic Observations

If you want to understand how behavior occurs, one of the best ways to gain information is to simply observe the behavior in its natural context. However, ...

Surveys

Often, psychologists develop surveys as a means of gathering data. Surveys are lists of questions to be answered by research participants, and can be ...

Archival Research

Some researchers gain access to large amounts of data without interacting with a single research participant. Instead, they use existing records to answer ...

Longitudinal Research

Sometimes we want to see how people change over time, as in studies of human development and lifespan. When we test the same group of individuals ...

Cross-Sectional Research

In cross-sectional research, a researcher compares multiple segments of the population at the same time. If they were interested in people&#39;s dietary ...

Group Design

The most basic experimental design involves two groups: the experimental group and the control group. The two groups are designed to be the same except ...

Factorial Design

Factorial Analysis is an experimental design that applies Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) statistical procedures to examine a change in a dependent variable ...

The Placebo Effect

The placebo effect occurs when people&#39;s expectations or beliefs influence or determine their experience in a given situation. In other words, simply ...

Blind Procedures

Ideally, the people who observe and record the children&rsquo;s behavior are unaware of who was assigned to the experimental or control group, in order to ...

Ethics in Research

Today, scientists agree that good research is ethical in nature and is guided by a basic respect for human dignity and safety. However, this has not ...

The student will demonstrate an understanding of scientific and engineering practices by Planning and carrying out investigations
• individually and collaboratively plan and conduct observational and experimental investigations 
• plan and conduct investigations or test design solutions in a safe manner, including planning for response to emergency situations 
• select and use appropriate tools and technology to collect, record, analyze, and evaluate data

CH.1.b

What is an Experiment?

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Study Design in Statistics

A study design is a set of techniques that allow a researcher to collect and analyze data from different variables defined for a specific research ...

Observational Studies

Observational studies are a type of analytical study where researchers observe events without any interventions. In other words, the researcher does not ...

Experimental Designs

An experimental design is a systematic process that allows researchers to evaluate the relationship between dependent and independent variables. There are ...

Randomized Experiments

The randomization process involves assigning study participants randomly to experimental or control groups based on their probability of being equally ...

Crossover Experiments

Crossover experiments, also called the repeated-measurements design, is a study design in which all experimental units are exposed to all treatments in ...

Controls in Experiments

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Bias

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Blinding

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Clinical Trials

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Introduction to Statistics

The science of statistics involves collecting, analyzing, interpreting, and presenting data. The method of collecting, organizing, and summarizing data is ...

How Data are Classified: Categorical Data

A variable, usually notated by capital letters such as X and Y, is a characteristic or measurement that can be determined for each member of a population. ...

How Data are Classified: Numerical Data

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Ogive Graph

An ogive graph is sometimes called a cumulative frequency polygon. It is one type of frequency polygon that shows cumulative frequency. In other words, ...

Histogram

The histogram is a graphical representation in the x-y form of data distribution in a data set. The horizontal x-axis is labeled with what the data ...

Relative Frequency Histogram

The relative frequency depicts the proportion of data points that have each value. The frequency tells the number of data points that have each value. ...

What is a Mode?

The mode is one of the commonly used measures of a central tendency. It is defined as the most frequent value in a data set.
There can be more than one ...

Scatter Plot

The most common and easiest way to display the relationship between two variables, x and y, is a scatter plot. A scatter plot shows the direction of a ...

Median

Besides mean, the median is a widely used measure of central tendency. Typically, median is defined as the central or middle value of a data set, measured ...

Time-Series Graph

A time-series graph is a line graph with repeated measurements taken at successive intervals of time. It is also called a time series chart. To construct ...

Midrange

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Bar Graph

A bar graph is also called a bar chart and consists of bars that are separated from each other. It either uses horizontal or vertical bars to show ...

What is Variation?

Apart from the measures of central tendency, distribution, outliers, and the changing characteristics of data with time, an important characteristic of ...

Multiple Bar Graph

As the name suggests, a multiple bar graph is the same as a bar graph but has multiple bars to depict relationships between different data values. One can ...

Range

The range is one of the measures of variation. It can be defined as the difference between a dataset&#39;s highest and lowest values. For example, in the ...

Pareto Chart

A Pareto chart is a bar graph or a combination of both line and bar graphs. The bar lengths represent the individual values or the frequency, while the ...

Standard Deviation

The most commonly used measure of variation is the standard deviation. It is a numerical value measuring how far data values are from their mean. The ...

Pie Chart

A pie chart (or a pie graph) is a circular graphical chart or a pictorial representation of categorical data. It is divided into slices of pie each ...

Standard Error of the Mean

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What is Central Tendency?

Descriptive statistics describe or summarize relevant characteristics of a sample and aid in the analysis of data of interest. When analyzing large ...

The student will demonstrate an understanding of scientific and engineering practices by Interpreting, analyzing and evaluating data
• record and present data in an organized format that communicates relationships and quantities in appropriate mathematical or algebraic forms 
• use data in building and revising models, supporting explanations for phenomena, or testing solutions to problems 
• solve problems using mathematical manipulations including the International System of Units (SI), scientific notation, derived units, significant digits, and dimensional analysis 
• analyze data using tools, technologies, and/or models (e.g., computational, mathematical) to make valid and reliable scientific claims or determine an optimal design solution 
• analyze data graphically and use graphs to make predictions 
• differentiate between accuracy and precision of measurements
• consider limitations of data analysis when analyzing and interpreting data 
• analyze data to optimize a design

Research Questions and Falsifiable Hypotheses

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