The Fabrication and Operation of a Continuous Flow, Micro-Electroporation System with Permeabilization Detection

Summary

This protocol describes the microfabrication techniques required to build a lab-on-a-chip, microfluidic electroporation device. The experimental setup performs controlled, single-cell-level transfections in a continuous flow and can be extended to higher throughputs with population-based control. An analysis is provided showcasing the ability to electrically monitor the degree of cell membrane permeabilization in real-time.

Abstract

Current therapeutic innovations, such as CAR-T cell therapy, are heavily reliant on viral-mediated gene delivery. Although efficient, this technique is accompanied by high manufacturing costs, which has brought about an interest in using alternative methods for gene delivery. Electroporation is an electro-physical, non-viral approach for the intracellular delivery of genes and other exogenous materials. Upon the application of an electric field, the cell membrane temporarily allows molecular delivery into the cell. Typically, electroporation is performed on the macroscale to process large numbers of cells. However, this approach requires extensive empirical protocol development, which is costly when working with primary and difficult-to-transfect cell types. Lengthy protocol development, coupled with the requirement of large voltages to achieve sufficient electric-field strengths to permeabilize the cells, has led to the development of micro-scale electroporation devices. These micro-electroporation devices are manufactured using common microfabrication techniques and allow for greater experimental control with the potential to maintain high throughput capabilities. This work builds off a microfluidic-electroporation technology capable of detecting the level of cell membrane permeabilization at a single-cell level under continuous flow. However, this technology was limited to 4 cells processed per second, and thus a new approach for increasing the system throughput is proposed and presented here. This new technique, denoted as cell-population-based feedback control, considers the cell permeabilization response to a variety of electroporation pulsing conditions and determines the best-suited electroporation pulse conditions for the cell type under test. A higher-throughput mode is then used, where this 'optimal' pulse is applied to the cell suspension in transit. The steps for fabricating the device, setting up and running the microfluidic experiments, and analyzing the results are presented in detail. Finally, this micro-electroporation technology is demonstrated by delivering a DNA plasmid encoding for green fluorescent protein (GFP) into HEK293 cells.

Introduction

Current therapeutic innovations in biomedical research, such as CAR-T (Chimeric Antigen Receptor Engineered T cell) cell therapy and genetic editing using CRISPR (clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat DNA sequences)/Cas9, heavily rely on the ability to deliver exogenous material both successfully and efficiently into the intracellular space¹. In CAR-T therapy, the gold standard to perform the gene delivery step in cell therapy manufacturing is using viral vectors². Though viral-mediated gene delivery is an efficient delivery modality, it also has several drawbacks. These include manufacturing costs, cy....

Protocol

NOTE: Users should review all MSDS for the materials and supplies used in this protocol. Appropriate PPE should be worn at each step and sterile technique used during experimentation. Sections 1-7 discuss the device fabrication.

1. Device fabrication- Mask design

NOTE: Refer to Figure 2 for an illustration of the microfabrication process. The microfabrication steps are to be carried out in a cleanroom environment. Additional PPE is necessary (hair net, facial hair net, mask, cleanroom suit, shoe covers).

1. Install a CAD software of choice, design a 2-Dimens....

Results

Figure 4 highlights the operating principles behind the single-cell-level membrane permeabilization detection for a single pulse amplitude. Following the initiation of the electroporation experiment, the cell detection algorithm determines an optimal threshold for cell detection via a point-by-point, slope-based detection method. The system then continuously monitors (1) for a significant negative change in the measured electrical current, which is indicative of the entry of a cell. This is .......

Discussion

The methodology presented within this protocol primarily focuses on the microfabrication of a microfluidic device that is then integrated into a specialized electroporation experimental setup. The term 'recipe', which is often used when describing the specifics of the microfabrication process, hints at the importance of following/optimizing each step to successfully fabricate a functioning device. However, certain critical steps within the process, when not optimized, such as UV exposure time/energy, PVD sputteri.......

Materials

List of materials used in this article

Name	Company	Catalog Number	Comments
150-mm diameter petri dishes	VWR	25384-326	step 6.1.1 to secure wafer
24-well tissue culture plates	VWR	10062-896	step 10.3.6 to plate electroporated cells
33220A Waveform/Function generator	Agilent		step 9.2.3 electroporation pulse generator
4'' Si-wafers	University Wafer		subsection 2.1 for microfluidic channel fabrication
6-well tissue culture plates	VWR	10062-892	step 8.1.8 to plate cells
Acetone	Fisher Scientific	A18-4	step 2.1.2 for cleaning and  step 5.1 photoresist lift-off
Allegra X-22R Centrifuge	Beckman Coulter		steps 8.1.4 , 8.3.2. and 8.3.3. to spin down cells
AutoCAD 2018	Autodesk		subsection 1.1. to design transparency masks
Buffered oxide etchant 10:1	VWR	901621-1L	subsection 3.1 for HF etching
CCD Monochrome microscope camera	Hamamatsu	Orca 285 C4742-96-12G04	step 11.2.3. for imaging
CMOS camera- Sensicam QE 1.4MP	PCO		subsection 9.3 part of the experimental setup
Conductive Epoxy	CircuitWorks	CW2400	subsection 7.6. for wire attachement
Conical Centrifuge Tubes, 15 mL	Fisher Scientific	14-959-70C	step 8.1.4. for cell centrifuging
Dektak 3ST Surface Profilometer	Veeco (Sloan/Dektak)		step 2.1.15 and 5.4 for surface profilometry
Disposable biopsy punch, 0.75 mm	Robbins Instruments	RBP075	step 6.2.3 for inlet access
Disposable biopsy punch, 3 mm	Robbins Instruments	RBP30P	step 6.2.3 for outlet access
DRAQ5	abcam	ab108410	step 11.2.2. for live cell staining
Dulbecco’s Modified Eagle’s Medium	ThermoFisher Scientific	11885084	step 8.1.2. part of media composition
E3631A Bipolar Triple DC power supply	Agilent		step 9.2.1.-9.2.2.part of the experimental setup
Eclipse TE2000-U Inverted  Microscope	Nikon		subsection 9.3. part of the experimental setup
EVG620 UV Lithography System	EVG		step 2.1.9. and 2.2.7. for UV Exposure
Fetal Bovine Serum	Neuromics	FBS001	step 8.1.2. part of media composition
FS20 Ultrasonic Cleaner	Fisher Scientific		subsection 5.1. for photoresist lift-off
Glass Media Bottle with Cap, 100mL	Fisher Scientific	FB800100	step 8.2.1. for buffer storage
Glass Media Bottle with Cap, 500mL	Fisher Scientific	FB800500	step 8.1.2.for media storage
HEK-293 cell line	ATCC	CRL-1573	subsection 8.1 for cell culturing
HEPES buffer solution	Sigma Aldrich	83264-100ML-F	step 8.2.1 part of electroporation buffer composition
Hexamethyldisilazane	Sigma Aldrich	379212-25ML	step 2.2.3 adhesion promoter
HF2LI Lock-in Amplifier	Zurich Instruments		subsection 9.2 part of the experimental setup
HF2TA Current amplifier	Zurich Instruments		subsection 9.2 part of the experimental setup
Isopropyl Alcohol	Fisher Scientific	A459-1	step 2.1.2 for cleaning, step 2.1.14 for rinsing wafer following SU-8 development, and step 6.3.1 for cleaning PDMS
IX81 fluorescence microscope	Olympus		step 11.2.3 for imaging
L-Glutamine Solution	Sigma Aldrich	G7513-20ML	step 8.1.2. part of media composition
M16878/1BFA 22 gauge wire	AWC	B22-1	subsection 7.5 for device fabrication
Magnesium chloride	Sigma Aldrich	208337-100G	step 8.1.2 part of electroporation buffer composition
MF 319 Developer	Kayaku Advanced Materials	10018042	step 2.2.9. photoresist developer
Microposit S1818 photoresist	Kayaku Advanced Materials	1136925	step 2.2.4 positive photoresist for electrode patterning
Microscope slides, 75 x 25 mm	VWR	16004-422	step 2.2.1 electrode soda lime glass substrate
Model 2350 High voltage amplifier	TEGAM	2350	step 9.2.5. part of the experimental setup
National Instruments LabVIEW	National Instruments		data acquisition
Needle, 30G x 1 in	BD Scientific	305128	step 10.1.1. part of the system priming
PA90 IC OPAMP Power circuit	Digi-key	598-1330-ND	Part of the custom circuit
Penicillin-Streptomycin	Sigma Aldrich	P4458-20ML	step 8.1.2. part of media composition
Plasmid pMAX-GFP	Lonza	VCA-1003	step 8.3.4. for intracellular delivery
Plastic tubing, 0.010'' x 0.030"	VWR	89404-300	step 10.1.2. for system priming
Platinum targets	Kurt J. Lesker		subsection 4.2. for physical vapor deposition
Potassium chloride	Sigma Aldrich	P9333-500G	step 8.2.1. part of electroporation buffer composition
Pump 11 PicoPlus microfluidic syringe pump	Harvard Apparatus	MA1 70-2213	step 10.1.4. for system priming
PVD75 Physical vapor deposition system	Kurt J. Lesker		subsection 4.1. for physical vapor deposition
PWM32 Spinner System	Headway Research		steps 2.1.6 and 2.2.2. for substrate coating with photoresist
PX-250 Plasma treatment system	March Instruments		subsection 7.2 for PDMS and glass substrate bonding
SDG1025 Function/Waveform generator	Siglent		step 9.2.2. part of the experimental setup
Sodium hydroxide	Sigma Aldrich	S8045-500G	step 8.2.1. part of electroporation buffer composition
SU-8 2010 negative photoresist	Kayaku Advanced Materials	Y111053	step 2.1.7. for microfluidic channel patterning
SU-8 developer	Microchem	Y010200	step 2.1.12. for photoresist developing
Sucrose	Sigma Aldrich	S7903-1KG	step 8.2.1. part of electroporation buffer composition
Sylgard 184 elastomer kit	Dow Corning	3097358-1004	step 6.2.1  10 : 1 mixture of PDMS polymer and hardening agent
Syringe, 1 ml	BD Scientific	309628	step 8.3.4. part of system priming
SZ61 Stereomicroscope System	Olympus		subsection 7.3. for channel and electrode alignment
Tissue Culture Treated T25 Flasks	Falcon	353108	step 8.1.2 for cell culturing
Titanium targets	Kurt J. Lesker		subsection 4.2. for physical vapor deposition
Transparency masks	CAD/ART Services		steps 2.1.9. and 2.2.7. for photolithography
Trichloro(1H,1H,2H,2H-perfluorooctyl)silane	Sigma Aldrich	448931-10G	step 6.1.2. for wafer silanization
Trypsin-EDTA solution	Sigma Aldrich	T4049-100ML	steps 8.1.3. and 8.3.1. for cell harvesting