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Method Article

Two-Dimensional Super-Resolution Visualization of Rat Brain Microvasculature Using Ultrasound Localization Microscopy

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DOI:

10.3791/67813

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March 28th, 2025

 ,  ,  ,  ,  ,  ,  , 
1Department of Biomedical Engineering, Fudan University, 2Academy for Engineering and Technology, Fudan University, 3School of Information Science and Technology, Fudan University, 4State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, Fudan University

In This Article

Summary

Here, we describe a protocol for ultrasound localization microscopy (ULM), which achieves 12.5 µm spatial resolution to image the brain microvasculature in rats. It enables detailed visualization of blood flow direction and velocity, offering a powerful tool for advancing studies of cerebral circulation and vascular disorders.

Abstract

The cerebral microvasculature forms a complex network of vessels essential for maintaining brain function. Diseases such as stroke, Alzheimer's disease, gliomas, and vascular dementia can profoundly disrupt the microvascular system. Unfortunately, current medical imaging modalities offer only indirect observations at this scale. Inspired by optical microscopy, ultrasound localization microscopy (ULM) overcomes the classical trade-off between penetration depth and spatial resolution. By localizing and tracking individual injected microbubbles (MBs) with sub-wavelength precision, vascular and velocity maps can be generated at the micrometer scale. Here, we present a robust protocol for super-resolution imaging of the brain microvasculature in vivo in rats using a commercial ultrasound platform. This method achieves 12.5 µm spatial resolution, reconstructing the microvascular architecture and providing detailed information on blood flow direction and velocity, greatly enhancing our understanding of cerebral microcirculation. The protocol can be extended to rat disease models, offering a powerful tool for the early diagnosis and treatment of neurovascular diseases.

Introduction

The cerebral microvasculature, comprising capillaries, arterioles, and venules, is essential for maintaining brain function by facilitating nutrient delivery, oxygen exchange, and waste removal1,2. Disruptions in this network are implicated in neurological disorders such as stroke3, Alzheimer's disease4, gliomas5, and vascular dementia6, leading to impairments in brain physiology. Microvascular changes frequently precede the onset of clinical symptoms, making them a critical target for diagnostic and therapeutic interventions7,8. A comprehensive understanding of vascular alterations at both structural and functional levels is key to advancing research and treatment strategies.

However, imaging the cerebral microvasculature is particularly challenging due to the small size and partly deep location within the brain. Conventional imaging modalities like magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)9 and computed tomography (CT)10, while adequate for capturing large-scale vascular changes, offer a spatial resolution (~100 µm) that is far too coarse for visualizing small vessels. Optical methods like two-photon microscopy11 provide excellent spatial resolution (down to 1 µm) to image individual capillaries but are hindered by limited field of view and penetration depth (less than 1 mm), restricting their ability to image deep brain regions. As an ultrasound-based technique, Doppler12, while offering real-time blood flow assessment, remains constrained by a resolution of 50-200 µm, insufficient for microvascular detail. Overall, no single method currently meets the dual requirement of high spatial resolution and sufficient brain penetration necessary for cerebral microvasculature imaging.

Inspired by optical microscopy13,14, ultrasonic localization microscopy (ULM) allows visualization of fine structures on the micron scale by locating individual injected microbubbles (MBs) and tracking their displacement with subwavelength resolution15. It bypasses the classic compromise between penetration and resolution in ultrasound imaging16. This study details a robust protocol for implementing ULM in a living rat model and thereby enabling super-resolution imaging of the brain microvasculature through the commercially available ultrasound platform. The protocol not only provides a comprehensive reconstruction of the microvascular structure but also provides detailed information about the direction and velocity of blood flow, which is not possible with conventional imaging techniques. Although the protocol was validated in normal rats, it is extendable to rat disease models, offering possibilities for customized studies in different pathological conditions.

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Protocol

All animal experiments performed in this work are approved by the Ethics Committee of Fudan University (Approval Number: 2022JS-004). The protocol strictly follows the animal care guidelines of Fudan University to ensure the humane treatment of animals. Prior to experimental initiation, rats must be allowed a 1-week period for environmental acclimatization, during which they are provided with sufficient feed and water. The photoperiod is carefully regulated in accordance with their biological rhythms to ensure the maintenance of normal physiological states. At the end of the experiment, euthanasia is performed using an overdose of inhaled isoflurane.

NOTE: The experimental setup is shown in Figure 1A-H.

1. Animal preparation for ULM imaging

  1. Anesthesia
    1. Induce anesthesia in the rat by administering a mixture of 3.5% isoflurane and 100% oxygen at a flow rate of 3 L/min. After approximately 4 min, remove the animal from the chamber and place it prone on an imaging platform pre-warmed to 37 °C.
      NOTE: The rat receives meloxicam (1 mg/kg, s.c.) 30 min before isoflurane induction.
    2. Place the rat's nose in a breathing mask connected to the anesthesia system. Maintain a stable sedation by administering a mixture of 1.5-2.0% isoflurane and 100% oxygen at a flow rate of 1.5 L/min.
      NOTE: Anesthesia methods and dosages strictly follow the manufacturer's guidelines. An electric heating pad set to 37 °C was placed beneath the rat to prevent anesthesia-induced hypothermia.
  2. Pre-surgical animal preparation
    1. Secure the rat's upper incisors in the notch of the incisor bar, positioning the lower jaw beneath the bar. Use ear bars to stabilize the rat's head by positioning them in the bony indentation slightly anterior and superior to the ear canal (palpable by hand), ensuring the whole cranial surface remains horizontal (Figure 1A).
    2. Gently probe the stability of the fixation by applying a small amount of pressure to different parts of the head. Ensure that there is no movement or slipping from the original position.
    3. Fine-tune the height of the imaging platform and meticulously adjust the angle of the rat's head by raising or lowering the incisor bar notch to ensure unobstructed breathing.
    4. Apply erythromycin ointment or 30% glycerin solution to the rat's eyes to prevent damage from prolonged exposure to surgical lights and to keep the eyes moist under anesthesia. Additionally, use round-tip tweezers to gently pull the rat's tongue to one side of the mouth to prevent asphyxiation during the surgery.
    5. Use a handheld electric clipper and shave the rat's head against the direction of hair growth (from back to front), typically between the ears, from the eyes to the beginning of the neck (Figure 1B). Disinfect the surgical area 3x with alternating rounds of iodine solution and alcohol before the skin incision.
  3. Rat craniotomy
    1. Confirm the depth of anesthesia by the absence of a withdrawal reflex upon the firm toe pinch of the rat's hind limb. Make an incision along the sagittal suture of the rat's skull, starting from just behind the occipital bone and extending approximately 4 cm anteriorly. Use hemostats to retract the skin on both sides (Figure 1C). Optionally, entirely excise the skin over the skull to provide greater surgical access, but this may increase the risk of infection.
    2. Use small scissors to remove the periosteum from the skull, fully exposing the hard bone layer.
    3. Perform the craniotomy using a handheld mini cranial drill equipped with a spherical drill bit (Figure 1D). Start with a coarse drill bit (2.5 mm diameter) and gently tap to abrade the bone, applying the drill for 2-3 s at a time. Begin in the central area and progress towards the thicker areas on the sides.
      NOTE: Excessive bleeding during craniotomy impacts blood circulation, resulting in a lack of vascular reconstruction in cortical areas (Figure 1H).
    4. Pause every 2-3 s to prevent overheating, and every 2 min, inject approximately 1 mL of 0.9% NaCl into the drilling area using a syringe to cool and rinse away debris.
    5. Once the white bone tissue no longer appears consistently connected, switch to a finer drill bit (1 mm diameter). Continue drilling until the central major blood vessels are clearly visible as dark brown, and the surrounding area appears pink, with microvessels visible as slightly reddish (Figure 1F).
      NOTE: The final craniotomy range is from Bregma +3 mm to Lambda anterior-posteriorly and 7 mm on each side along the midline of the skull (Figure 1E). After completing the surgery, allow the rat to rest for approximately 10 min to ensure relatively stable physiological conditions before beginning data collection.

2. Setup before data collection

  1. Contrast agent preparation and injection
    1. Dissolve the contrast agent (one vial containing 59 mg of SF6 gas and 25 mg of lyophilized powder), per the official guidelines, in 5 mL of 0.9% NaCl. Vigorously shake the mixture to form an MB suspension. The final concentration of SF6 in the suspension is 8 µL/mL.
    2. Draw 0.8 mL of the MB suspension into a 1 mL syringe and secure it to a microinjection pump programmed to infuse at 100 µL/min.
    3. Insert a 26 G indwelling needle with a catheter attached into the tail vein of the rat (Figure 1G).
  2. Selecting the imaging plane
    1. Mount a probe with a central frequency of 15.625 MHz on the manipulator arm of the brain stereotaxic instrument, equipped with a clamp (movement range: vertical, horizontal, and anterior-posterior up to 80 mm; reading precision: 0.1 mm).
    2. Position the ultrasound probe directly above the exposed rat brain. Apply coupling gel to the exposed brain surface to ensure optimal signal transmission.
    3. Open the software's main interface, which integrates a rat brain atlas with motor motion control programs.
    4. Set the Bregma point as the origin. The software interface provides a real-time display of the probe's trajectory and the corresponding rat brain slice location. Select the target imaging plane; for example, Bregma -1 mm.

3. Data collection (Timing ~ 20 min)

NOTE: Verasonics (ultrasound system) provides the original MATLAB scripts for use with the Vantage system and has not been modified.

  1. Software startup
    1. Launch MATLAB 2021a software.
    2. Enter the data acquisition script in MATLAB 2021a.
    3. In the root directory, type activate in the command line window to activate the runtime environment.
  2. Parameter configuration and RF signals acquisition
    1. Set the data collection start and end depths at 5 and 120 wavelengths, respectively, to effectively capture the region of interest.
      NOTE: Adjustments should be made based on the imaging plane and the specific animal being studied.
    2. Set the plane wave transmission steering angles from -5° to 5° in 2.5° increments to enhance image resolution and contrast.
      NOTE: Adjust these settings based on specific imaging requirements and target characteristics.
    3. Set the transmit voltage to 20 V to ensure adequate penetration and optimal signal-to-noise ratio for the region of interest.
    4. Click the Run button to start data collection and save the radio frequency (RF) signals in .mat file format.
      NOTE: Begin data collection 30 s after starting the microinjection pump to ensure uniform and stable MB distribution within the rat's body.

4. Data processing and analysis (Timing ~ 8 h)

  1. Data processing
    1. Import the RF data into MATLAB 2021a and demodulate it to generate In-phase and Quadrature (I/Q) data (see Table of Materials).
    2. Click the Run button to utilize the Delay-and-Sum (DAS) algorithm for beamforming on the I/Q data (see Table of Materials).
      ​NOTE: Post-compounding frame rate of 800 Hz, with a total of 120,000 frames.
  2. ULM imaging
    1. Apply the Singular Value Decomposition (SVD) spatiotemporal filtering algorithm17 to IQ data to remove background noise and clutter. Each 800 frames is stored as a data block, and the SVD threshold is set to [15, 800].
    2. Locate the center of each MB using the Gaussian fitting algorithm18.
    3. Utilize the Kuhn-Munkres algorithm to track MB trajectories across consecutive frames based on their positions (see Table of Materials).
    4. Map MB trajectories onto an 8x upsampled grid, using a hot colormap to display the number of MB trajectories and a jet colormap to encode flow speed by mapping the calculated velocity at each position within the microvasculature.
    5. Apply a custom color scheme to distinguish upward and downward flow directions, resulting in high-resolution images for enhanced visualization.
    6. Randomly split the original MB trajectories into two groups to create two sub-images, perform a Fourier transform on each, and compute the Fourier Ring Correlation (FRC) as the normalized correlation of their spectra. Define the resolution as the inverse of the spatial frequency where the FRC falls below the threshold19.

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Results

Figure 1 illustrates the detailed setup for in vivo brain microvascular ULM imaging in rats, with each element carefully designed to minimize experimental variability and ensure accurate data acquisition for reliable super-resolution imaging results.

Figure 2A displays the ULM-reconstructed structure of the microvasculature in the rat brain, positioned at -1 mm from the Bregma point, with an imaging depth nearing 12 mm. The e...

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Discussion

This protocol successfully utilized ULM to perform super-resolution imaging of in vivo rat brain microvasculature. Compared to other imaging modalities, ULM simultaneously accommodates both spatial resolution and penetration depth. The exposed rat brain was imaged rather than through the skull, avoiding attenuation and distortion caused by the presence of bone. Under a transducer with a central frequency of 15.625 MHz, vascular structures at a depth of approximately 12 mm were captured, with a spatial resolution of up to...

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Disclosures

The authors have nothing to disclose.

Acknowledgements

This work was supported in part by the National Key Research and Development Program of China under Grant 2023YFC2410903, the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grants 12274092, 12034005), the Explorer Program of Shanghai (Grant 21TS1400200), the International Science and Technology Cooperation Program of Shanghai (Grant 24490710400), and the AI for Science Foundation of Fudan University (Grant FudanX24AI016).

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Materials

List of materials used in this article
NameCompanyCatalog NumberComments
AlcoholDICHANGhttps://www.dehsm.com/goods-17187.html75%
Beamforming programInstitute of Biomedical Engineering at the University of MontrealMatlab Ultrasound Toolbox 3.4 version
Body temperature maintenance deviceRWD Life Science Co., Ltd.69026
Brain stereotaxic instrumentRWD Life Science Co., Ltd.71000-RAdaptable to breathing mask
Cranial Microinjection Surgical Instrument KitRWD Life Science Co., Ltd.SP0005-R
Digital microscopeRWD Life Science Co., Ltd.DOM-1001
Drug delivery catheterRWD Life Science Co., Ltd.https://www.rwdls.com/product-solutions/life-sciences/administration/draw-blood
Erythromycin ointmentRenhe PharmaH360200181% x 15 g
Gas anesthesia machineRWD Life Science Co., Ltd.R500IEIncludes breathing mask
Handheld electric clipperGUAZHOUMUMJD-DTJ02
Handheld mini cranial drillRWD Life Science Co., Ltd.78001
Indwelling needleKindly EnterpriseDevelopment Group Co., LTDPositive Pressure Model 26 G
Iodine solutionHYNAUThttps://www.hainuocn.com/index/detail/524.html4.5–5.5 g/L
IQ demodulation programInstitute of Biomedical Engineering at the University of MontrealMatlab Ultrasound Toolbox 3.4 version
IsofluraneRWD Life Science Co., Ltd.R510-22-10
MATLAB softwareMathWorksVersion R2021a
Microinjection pumpRWD Life Science Co., Ltd.R462
Sodium chloride injectionSHENG'AO animals pharmaceutical Co., Ltd.2700714600.90%
SonoVueBraccohttps://www.bracco.com/en-se/product/sonovue
Spherical drill bitRWD Life Science Co., Ltd.HM1027/HM1010
Supporting Positioning SoftwareRWD Life Science Co., Ltd.V2.0.0.30400
SyringeKindly EnterpriseDevelopment Group Co., Ltd.RWLB1 mL
Tracking programJean-Yves Tinevez2016 version
Ultrasound gelJunkang Medical Equipment Co., Ltd.Model DS-1
Ultrasound probeVERASONICS, INC.L22-14vX LF
Verasonics Ultrasound SystemVERASONICS, INC.Vantage-256ultrasound platform

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Super Resolution ImagingRat Brain ImagingMicrobubble TrackingBlood Flow DynamicsCraniotomy ProcedureVelocity MappingMicrovascular ArchitectureNeurovascular Disease Models
Two-Dimensional Super-Resolution Visualization of Rat Brain Microvasculature Using Ultrasound Localization Microscopy
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