细菌转化

Griffith studied two Streptococcus pneumoniae strains: the virulent S strain with a protective capsule and the non-virulent R strain without it. When he combined heat-killed S strain with live R strain and injected mice, they died unexpectedly. This discovery of bacterial transformation in 1928 revealed that genetic material could transfer between bacteria, fundamentally changing our understanding of heredity and laying the foundation for modern genetic engineering.

In 1943, Avery, MacLeod, and McCarty demonstrated that the transforming principle was desoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA, the heredity material. They showed that DNA leaked from heat-killed S strain bacteria into R strain cells, carrying genetic information that encoded the protective capsule. This discovery proved DNA was responsible for passing hereditary traits between bacterial cells.

Plasmids are small, circular loops of double-stranded DNA found in bacterial cytoplasm that replicate independently from chromosomal DNA. They often carry genes for beneficial traits like antibiotic resistance. Scientists use plasmids as vectors to introduce foreign DNA into bacteria like E. coli because bacteria can easily take in exogenous genetic material and rapidly amplify it, making plasmids ideal tools for genetic engineering research.

Competence is the ability of bacteria like E. coli to take up DNA from their environment. Under specific conditions—such as chemical treatment with calcium chloride, electrical shock, or heat shock—the bacterial cell wall becomes temporarily permeable. This allows plasmids and other DNA molecules to cross the membrane and enter the cell, where they can be replicated and expressed alongside the bacterial genome.

Scientists use antibiotic-containing media as a selection method to identify successfully transformed cells. Plasmids typically carry antibiotic resistance genes, so only bacteria that have taken up the plasmid survive on these plates. Non-transformed bacteria lack the resistance gene and die, ensuring that visible colonies contain the plasmid of interest and have been successfully transformed.

If a transformed bacterium loses its plasmid, it also loses the genes carried on that plasmid, including antibiotic resistance. The cell reverts to its original phenotype and can no longer survive on antibiotic-containing media. This is why continuous selection on antibiotic plates is necessary to maintain populations of successfully transformed bacteria carrying the plasmid of interest.

Griffith's experiment involved natural DNA transfer between bacterial strains, while modern bacterial transformation using plasmids is a controlled laboratory process. Scientists artificially introduce recombinant plasmids containing specific genes into competent E. coli cells using heat shock or chemical treatment. This allows precise genetic manipulation and is the foundation for bacterial transformation using plasmids procedure in contemporary genetic engineering and biotechnology research.