Name: centrifuge safety and sample separation
Uploaded: 2023-04-30T06:56:33.000Z
Duration: 7 min 7 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills

High School

Specialised Topic in Science

112.51.c.1.

112.51.c.1.C.

Working with Centrifuges

1. General Protocol for Safe Centrifuge Usage
<ol>
	<li>The laboratory supervisor or laboratory safety officer should ensure all users are properly trained in the selection of the rotor, sample tube, and proper operation of the centrifuge.</li>
	<li>Any new user should be closely supervised by a trained user until he/she is confident on how to properly use the instrument.</li>
	<li>Prior to using the instrument, each user should carefully read and understand the safety instructions for the specific centrifuge.</li>
	<li>Depending on sample, compatible rotors should be used.</li>
	<li>The rotor, tube, and spindle should be clean, dry, and free from cracks or deformities.</li>
	<li>The O-rings should be checked for any wear or cracks.</li>
	<li>It is important to make sure that the tubes used for centrifugation are compatible with the sample and the rotation speed (low, high, or ultra).</li>
	<li>The centrifuge tubes should not be filled more than three-fourths of their maximum fill level.</li>
	<li>The tubes should be capped tightly.</li>
	<li>It is extremely important to balance the tubes opposite to each other. Failure to do so may lead to incomplete separation and, in extreme cases, can cause dispersion of the tube contents in the housing of the centrifuge.</li>
	<li>Before turning on the centrifuge, the rotor should be checked to ensure it is correctly seated on the drive and the lid is properly closed.</li>
	<li>The lid should be kept closed at all times when the centrifuge is in operation, and should never be open until the rotor completely stops.</li>
	<li>The operator should remain in the vicinity of the centrifuge until it has safely reached the target operation speed. In the case of unusual sounds or vibrations, the instrument should be immediately turned off. The speed limit of the instrument should never be exceeded. Upon turning off, allow sufficient time for the rotor to slow down to a stopped position. Modern centrifuges have indicators that will signify that it is safe to open the centrifuge.</li>
	<li>Once the centrifugation is over, samples should be removed and the instrument should be checked for any spills or leaks. If necessary, the rotor should be cleaned thoroughly.</li>
</ol>
2. Additional Precautions While Handling Hazardous Chemicals or Infectious Materials
<ol>
	<li>When using hazardous chemicals or biological samples that might be infectious, it is important to label the instrument while in usage to alert other workers to the danger.</li>
	<li>Appropriate gloves1 should be worn to handle hazardous samples.</li>
	<li>Sealed safety tubes should be used. It is preferable to use secondary confinement, if available, for the centrifuge tubes. These are usually in the form of plastic or glass inserts that are placed directly in the sample buckets of the centrifuge.</li>
	<li>Once the centrifugation is over, the tubes should be removed from the rotor and opened only in the fume hood or biological safety cabinet, as applicable.</li>
	<li>Cleaning, if required, should be done with extreme care, so as to not expose the operator to hazardous chemicals or infectious materials. In case of spills of such samples, see step 3, Emergency Situations, below.</li>
	<li>For specific types of hazardous samples, it may be preferable to maintain standard procedures and cleaning protocols in laboratory. These should be reviewed and updated accordingly, as necessary.</li>
</ol>
3. Emergency Situations and Their Safety Measures
An emergency situation may arise if the rotor malfunctions or if there is a spill in the centrifuge due to tube breakage or mishandling. In such situations, the following steps should be taken.
<ol>
	<li>The centrifuge should be turned off immediately and the lid should be kept closed until others are notified and evacuate the location. The power should be terminated at the power button on the instrument. The button will be located either on the front, side, or back of the instrument. The user should familiarize themselves with its location. If the power button is malfunctioning, then the user should remove the main power plug from the wall socket.</li>
	<li>To reduce the risk of aerosols, it is sometimes better to leave the centrifuge untouched for at least 0.5 h. Consult with the centrifuge technical document.</li>
	<li>For cleaning up spills, the operator should be well acquainted with the sample being used and should wear proper attire including lab-coat, gloves, facial shield, and safety glasses.
	<ol>
		<li>Once cleaned, the spilled material should be properly disposed of and the contaminated protective clothing should be disposed of or cleaned properly. Hands and any exposed skin should be washed thoroughly.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>If overtly exposed to highly hazardous materials, 911 should be called or immediate medical attention should be administered to the afflicted person.</li>
</ol>
4. Maintenance of the Centrifuge
NOTE: The body of the centrifuge is usually made from metals that can corrode in the presence of moisture, chemicals, or strong cleaning agents. For proper maintenance of the centrifuge, it is recommended to carefully follow the manufacturer&#39;s instructions for cleaning and maintenance. Other than that, a few general measures for maintenance to be kept in mind are as follows.
<ol>
	<li>The centrifuge should always be kept clean and dry.</li>
	<li>Any kind of spills should be immediately cleaned.</li>
	<li>The rotor should be decontaminated after use with biological and radioactive materials. It is recommended to use 10% bleach for 30 min followed by 70% ethanol, letting the rotor air dry.</li>
	<li>Abrasive brush wires should never be used to clean the rotor and associated parts.</li>
	<li>The rotor should be inspected after each use by the operator and at least annually by manufacturer inspector.</li>
	<li>A log book should be maintained for each centrifuge to keep a record of users, samples, and service history. Additionally, copies of any warranty-related materials can be included in this log book.</li>
</ol>
<div class="chapter_text" id="script_3">
<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: Arial; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); background-color: transparent; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Centrifugation is one of the most powerful tools used in labs for the separation of heterogeneous mixtures, but it can be hazardous, and therefore safety precautions should be applied.&#160;
&#160;
<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: Arial; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); background-color: transparent; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">A centrifuge rapidly spins samples to separate heterogeneous materials, which induces extreme centrifugal forces on the samples and the instrument. Due to the high speed at which a centrifuge operates, it can cause serious injury to the user if mishandled. Therefore, special care must be taken when using a centrifuge to prevent spills and damage to the equipment.&#160;
&#160;
<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: Arial; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); background-color: transparent; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">This video will illustrate the mechanism of a centrifuge and how to safely operate and maintain one.
&#160;
<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: Arial; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); background-color: transparent; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Before going into the details of the safety measures, let&#39;s quickly review the basics of centrifugation. Centrifuges contain a rotor housed on a spindle. Differently sized rotors can usually be fitted on a single spindle to accommodate different sample bottles, tubes, or bags. A motor spins the rotor at a specified RPM or revolutions per minute. This, in turn, imparts the centrifugal force on the heterogeneous mixture directed away from the axis of rotation, which separates particles with different densities.
&#160;
<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: Arial; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); background-color: transparent; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Different types of centrifuges operate at different RPMs. Low-speed centrifuges run at less than 10,000 RPMs, high-speed up to 21,000, and ultracentrifuges to 30,000 and above. Each type has different rotors that are compatible with it. After the run, a braking system usually slows down the rotor. In any centrifuge, high speed deforms the rotor.
&#160;
<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: Arial; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); background-color: transparent; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">In normal use, it will return to its previous size. However, if the force due to spinning exceeds the maximum force that the rotor can handle, then it might get permanently deformed. This can lead to cracks, which may, in turn, lead to serious failure. Centrifuge failures, on the other hand, may lead to sample leakage, which can be dangerous if hazardous materials are involved and should be handled with care. Now, we will show you how to prepare samples and safely use them in the centrifuge.
&#160;
<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: Arial; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); background-color: transparent; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">First, select appropriate centrifuge tubes that are compatible with the rotating speeds you want to use. Check the documentation to find out the tube&#39;s limits. Tubes should be intact and free of any cracks. Fill each to no more than 3/4 full to prevent spills. Then make sure that the tubes are balanced and cap them tightly.
&#160;
<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: Arial; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); background-color: transparent; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">When centrifuging hazardous chemical or biological samples, take special precautions. Wear appropriate protective equipment, and prepare samples in an appropriate work environment, like a fume hood or laminar flow cabinet. For more information on these safety features, see JoVE&#39;s videos on Fume Hoods.
&#160;
<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: Arial; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); background-color: transparent; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">If necessary, use a secondary containment for hazardous materials, like a glass or plastic insert. Sealed safety tubes providing a contained environment can be used as well. Everyone must be trained before using any centrifuge or rotor.
&#160;
<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: Arial; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); background-color: transparent; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Select a rotor appropriate to the centrifuge. Check that the rotor and its cover are clean and dry and do not have cracks or deformities. Make extra sure that the O-rings on the rotor or cover are not worn. Also, check the centrifuge spindle to see if it is bent or has any other deformities. Then place the rotor on the spindle making sure it is correctly seated. Insert samples into the rotor, being sure that the tubes fit snugly in the rotor.
&#160;
<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: Arial; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); background-color: transparent; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Always put balanced tubes opposite each from each other. Cover the rotor, ensuring that the seal is tight. Close the centrifuge lid and start your program. Again, see JoVE&#39;s previous centrifuge video, for more information about running a centrifuge program.
&#160;
<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: Arial; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); background-color: transparent; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Stay at the centrifuge until it has reached its maximum speed. Familiarize yourself with the location of the power button. Turn off the power button if there are any unusual sounds or vibrations to stop the centrifuge immediately. Then evacuate the immediate area until the rotor has stopped. Once it has stopped, inspect the samples for spillage and the rotor for any abnormalities or imbalances. If there were no problems, wait until the centrifuge has completed its program and completely stopped.
&#160;
<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: Arial; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); background-color: transparent; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Wait an additional half-hour if aerosol-forming chemicals are present. Otherwise, you may open
<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: Arial; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); background-color: transparent; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">the centrifuge immediately. Remove the samples and take them back to a specialized area for opening if necessary. In case of a spill, clean up the centrifuge immediately. Use appropriate PPE to any hazard present, and dispose of contaminated materials according to guidelines. Do not use abrasive brush wires to clean as they may damage the rotor. Alert emergency personnel, and do not attempt to clean the centrifuge if life-threatening hazards have spilled.&#160;
&#160;
<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: Arial; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); background-color: transparent; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Decontaminate the rotor with 10% bleach for any biological samples used in the centrifuge regardless of spill or not. Let the bleach stand for 30 minutes, and then rinse 70% ethanol and air dry. Lastly, remove and inspect the rotor for any damage, and note down your use in the logbook.
&#160;
<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: Arial; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); background-color: transparent; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">You&#39;ve just watched JoVE&#39;s Introduction Into Centrifuge Use. You should now understand how to prepare your samples as well as how to operate and maintain the instrument.
&#160;
<span style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: Arial; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); background-color: transparent; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wrap;">Thanks for watching.
<div></div>
</div>

With the increased usage of centrifuges in laboratories and industry, the risk of hazards for using centrifuges has also increased. However, careful handling of the apparatus and proper knowledge of its use and safety measures can substantially mitigate accidents. A basic guideline for working with centrifuges is provided here. Nonetheless, procedures may vary marginally depending on the particular centrifuge machine used. Hence, it is always recommended to carefully read and understand the user manual of the particular ...

working with centrifuges

Source: Robert M. Rioux &amp; Suprita Jharimune, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA
Earth's gravitational force is capable of separating heterogeneous mixtures. However, many systems avert this type of separation owing to the length of time usually required in such cases. Centrifugation is one of the most powerful tools for the separation of heterogeneous mixtures1. It involves the application of centripetal force for sedimentation of the heavier phase, leading to separation of the two phases, and is a commonly used technique in industrial and laboratory settings.
In a typical centrifugation process, particles suspended in a fluid are spun about the centrifuge axis of rotation, causing a force away from the axis. This force drives the particles to the bottom of the centrifuge sample holder at a rate which is dependent on the size and density of the particles. Centrifugation is therefore a technique to speed up the process of sedimentation.
To ensure safety in the usage of a centrifuge, the user should be properly trained and made aware of the hazards that might result from its usage. The following sections present a discussion of handling and safety while working with centrifuges.

Source: Robert M. Rioux &amp; Suprita Jharimune, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA
Earth's gravitational force is capable of separating ...

Centrifugation is one of the most powerful tools used in labs for the separation of heterogeneous mixtures, but it can be hazardous, and therefore safety precautions should be applied.?A centrifuge rapidly spins samples to separate heterogeneous materials, which induces extreme centrifugal forces on the samples and the instrument. Due to the high speed at which a centrifuge operates, it can cause serious injury to the user if mishandled. Therefore, special care must be taken when using a centrifuge to prevent spills and damage to the equipment.?This video will illustrate the mechanism of a centrifuge and how to safely operate and maintain one.Before going into the details of the safety measures, let's quickly review the basics of centrifugation. Centrifuges contain a rotor housed on a spindle. Differently sized rotors can usually be fitted on a single spindle to accommodate different sample bottles, tubes, or bags. A motor spins the rotor at a specified RPM or revolutions per minute. This, in turn, imparts the centrifugal force on the heterogeneous mixture directed away from the axis of rotation, which separates particles with different densities.Different types of centrifuges operate at different RPMs. Low-speed centrifuges run at less than 10,000 RPMs, high-speed up to 21,000, and ultracentrifuges to 30,000 and above. Each type has different rotors that are compatible with it. After the run, a braking system usually slows down the rotor. In any centrifuge, high speed deforms the rotor.In normal use, it will return to its previous size. However, if the force due to spinning exceeds the maximum force that the rotor can handle, then it might get permanently deformed. This can lead to cracks, which may, in turn, lead to serious failure. Centrifuge failures, on the other hand, may lead to sample leakage, which can be dangerous if hazardous materials are involved and should be handled with care. Now, we will show you how to prepare samples and safely use them in the centrifuge.First, select appropriate centrifuge tubes that are compatible with the rotating speeds you want to use. Check the documentation to find out the tube's limits. Tubes should be intact and free of any cracks. Fill each to no more than 3/4 full to prevent spills. Then make sure that the tubes are balanced and cap them tightly.When centrifuging hazardous chemical or biological samples, take special precautions. Wear appropriate protective equipment, and prepare samples in an appropriate work environment, like a fume hood or laminar flow cabinet. For more information on these safety features, see JoVE's videos on Fume Hoods.If necessary, use a secondary containment for hazardous materials, like a glass or plastic insert. Sealed safety tubes providing a contained environment can be used as well. Everyone must be trained before using any centrifuge or rotor.Select a rotor appropriate to the centrifuge. Check that the rotor and its cover are clean and dry and do not have cracks or deformities. Make extra sure that the O-rings on the rotor or cover are not worn. Also, check the centrifuge spindle to see if it is bent or has any other deformities. Then place the rotor on the spindle making sure it is correctly seated. Insert samples into the rotor, being sure that the tubes fit snugly in the rotor.Always put balanced tubes opposite each from each other. Cover the rotor, ensuring that the seal is tight. Close the centrifuge lid and start your program. Again, see JoVE's previous centrifuge video, for more information about running a centrifuge program.Stay at the centrifuge until it has reached its maximum speed. Familiarize yourself with the location of the power button. Turn off the power button if there are any unusual sounds or vibrations to stop the centrifuge immediately. Then evacuate the immediate area until the rotor has stopped. Once it has stopped, inspect the samples for spillage and the rotor for any abnormalities or imbalances. If there were no problems, wait until the centrifuge has completed its program and completely stopped.Wait an additional half-hour if aerosol-forming chemicals are present. Otherwise, you may openthe centrifuge immediately. Remove the samples and take them back to a specialized area for opening if necessary. In case of a spill, clean up the centrifuge immediately. Use appropriate PPE to any hazard present, and dispose of contaminated materials according to guidelines. Do not use abrasive brush wires to clean as they may damage the rotor. Alert emergency personnel, and do not attempt to clean the centrifuge if life-threatening hazards have spilled.?Decontaminate the rotor with 10% bleach for any biological samples used in the centrifuge regardless of spill or not. Let the bleach stand for 30 minutes, and then rinse 70% ethanol and air dry. Lastly, remove and inspect the rotor for any damage, and note down your use in the logbook.You've just watched JoVE's Introduction Into Centrifuge Use. You should now understand how to prepare your samples as well as how to operate and maintain the instrument.Thanks for watching.

Education

JoVE Science Education

Basic Biology

Lab Safety

centrifuge safety and sample separation

Centrifuges are used to separate heterogeneous mixtures by spinning particles in a fluid at high speed. The motion creates a force away from the axis of rotation. Heavier particles move faster toward the bottom of the sample holder, and the rate depends on particle size and density.

This process is called centrifugation, and it speeds up sedimentation, which is the settling of particles out of a liquid. Gravity can separate some mixtures on its own, but that can take a long time. Centrifugation is a powerful tool in laboratories and in industry because it helps separate the heavier phase from the lighter phase more quickly.

Safe use of a centrifuge is important because the machine can create hazards if it is not handled correctly. Users should be properly trained before operating it. The video focuses on centrifuge handling and safety so students can understand how the instrument works and how to use it responsibly.

Centrifuge Safety and Sample Separation

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Centrifuges are used to separate heterogeneous mixtures by spinning particles in a fluid at high speed. The motion creates a force away from the axis of rotation. Heavier particles move faster toward the bottom of the sample holder, and the rate depends on particle size and density. This process is called centrifugation, and it speeds up sedimentation, which is the settling of particles out of a liquid. Gravity can separate some mixtures on its own, but that can take a long time.

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Lab Waste Management and Safety

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lab safety

This collection provides safety guidelines to be followed when working with hazardous materials and equipment. It covers universal topics such as PPE, electrical safety, and general emergency guidelines, as well as some specific safety procedures for chemistry and biology laboratories.

Learn how centrifuges speed up sedimentation, separate heterogeneous mixtures, and why proper training and safety matter when using this lab tool.

Centrifuge Safety and Sample Separation | JoVE K12

Chemistry

CHEM.1

CHEM.1.C

Chemistry and Physics

IPC.1

IPC.1.C

Robert Rioux

Overview

Basics of Centrifugation

Preparing samples for the centrifuge

Using and maintaining the centrifuge

Summary

The Scientific Method

The scientific method is a detailed, empirical problem-solving process used by biologists and other scientists. This iterative approach involves ...

Inductive Reasoning

Inductive reasoning is a form of logical thinking that uses related observations to arrive at a general conclusion. It is uncertain and operates in ...

Deductive Reasoning

Deductive reasoning, or deduction, is the type of logic used in hypothesis-based science. In deductive reasoning, the pattern of thinking moves in the ...

Correlation and Causation

Correlation and CausationStatistical tests can calculate whether there is a relationship, or correlation, between independent and dependent variables. A ...

Ask questions and define problems related to specialized topics of study based on observations or information from text, phenomena, models, or investigations;

112.51.c.1.A.

Scientific Method

The scientific method is used to solve problems and explain phenomena. The development of the scientific method coincided with changes in philosophy ...

Demonstrating the Scientific Method with Tree Branches
ExpandObtain branches containing a few dozen typical leaves from five different local tree species. ...

Observation and Background Research
ExpandNOTE: The first two steps in the scientific process involve studying and observing natural phenomena of ...

Problem-Solving

A problem-solving strategy is a plan of action used to find a solution. It involves trial and error, algorithms, heuristics, and insights. Effective ...

Problem Definition

Problem definition is the initial and the most essential step in research.
The researcher identifies and explains the specific issue or gap to be ...

Apply science practices related to specialized topics of study to plan and conduct investigations or use engineering practices to design solutions to problems;

112.51.c.1.B.

Proper Personal Protective Equipment

Robert M. Rioux &#38; William A Elliott, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA
Hazards are many and varied in the laboratory, but the right ...

Emergency Eyewash and Shower Stations

Robert M. Rioux, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA
The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) mandates that an emergency ...

Electrical Safety

Robert M. Rioux &amp; Suprita Jharimune, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA
Among the many hazards present in the laboratory, electrical ...

Working with Hot and Cold Sources

Source: Robert M. Rioux &amp; Suprita Jharimune, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA
Working with extreme temperatures, both high and low, ...

Guidelines in Case of a Laboratory Emergency

Robert M. Rioux &amp; Zhifeng Chen, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA
The most common laboratory emergencies include chemical spills, ...

Chemical Storage: Categories, Hazards And Compatibilities

Source: Robert M. Rioux &amp; Taslima A. Zaman, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA
While the use of various chemicals in experimental ...

Safe Handling of Mineral Acids

Source: Robert M. Rioux &#38; Taslima A. Zaman, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA
A mineral acid (or inorganic acid) is defined as a ...

Handling Chemical Spills

Source: Robert M. Rioux &#38; Taslima Zaman, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA
Since chemicals are commonly used for laboratory research ...

Proper Use of Autoclaves

Robert M. Rioux &amp; Zhifeng Chen, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA
Autoclaving is one of the most commonly used methods in the ...

Fume Hoods and Laminar Flow Cabinets

Robert M. Rioux &amp; William A. Elliott, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA
Fume hoods and laminar flow cabinets are engineering controls ...

Decontamination for Laboratory Biosafety

Robert M. Rioux and Zhifeng Chen, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA
Decontamination is essential for laboratory biosafety, as the ...

Proper Waste Disposal

Robert M. Rioux and Taslima A. Zaman, Pennsylvania State University, Pennsylvania, PA

Users are responsible for the proper disposal of the waste ...

Use appropriate safety equipment and practices during laboratory, classroom, and field investigations as outlined in Texas Education Agency-approved safety standards;

Common Lab Glassware and Uses

Source: Laboratory of Dr. Neal Abrams &#8212; SUNY College of Environmental Science and Forestry
Glassware is a regular appearance in the professional ...

Lab Techniques

Measurement Accuracy
The ability to repeat an experiment and get the same results, or reproducibility, is essential in scientific research. However, ...

Source: Smaa Koraym at Johns Hopkins University, MD, USA

	Preparation of LaboratoryExpand
	Here we show the laboratory preparation for 10 students ...

Source: Smaa Koraym at Johns Hopkins University, MD, USA

	Determining the Density of an EggExpand
	Density is a measure of how compact a substance or ...

Proper Lab Notebook Keeping

Organic Lab Notebook Keeping
Record keeping is a vital skill in science and organic chemistry labs. Without proper notes, descriptions, quantities, or ...

Source: Lara Al Hariri at the University of Massachusetts Amherst, MA, USA

	Preparation of the LaboratoryExpand
	Here, we show the laboratory preparation ...

Source: Lara Al Hariri and Ahmed Basabrain at the University of Massachusetts Amherst, MA, USA

	Nitration of Methyl BenzoateExpand
	From this lab onward, ...

Use tools appropriate to the specialized topic of study;

112.51.c.1.D.

SI Units: 2019 Redefinition

Measurement is integral to analytical chemistry. Each record comprises a number &#8211; denoting the magnitude&#160; &#8211; and the unit &#8211; a ...

International System of Units

The International System of Units, known as the SI system, is a universally accepted measurement system recognized and used worldwide. The SI system is ...

Measurement: Standard Units

Every measurement provides three kinds of information: the size or magnitude of the measurement (a number), a standard of comparison for the measurement ...

Measurement: Derived Units

The International System of Units or SI system, by international agreement, has fixed measurement units for seven fundamental properties: length, mass, ...

Collect quantitative data using the International System of Units (SI) or qualitative data as evidence as appropriate to the specialized topic of study;

112.51.c.1.E.

Review and Preview

Data are individual items of information obtained from a population or sample. Data may be classified as qualitative (categorical), quantitative ...

What is a Frequency Distribution

A frequency is the number of times a value of the data occurs. The sum of all the frequency values represents the total number of students included in the ...

Cumulative Frequency Distribution

A cumulative frequency distribution is another type of frequency distribution. Instead of reporting how many data values fall in some classes, it reports ...

Ogive Graph

An ogive graph is sometimes called a cumulative frequency polygon. It is one type of frequency polygon that shows cumulative frequency. In other words, ...

Histogram

The histogram is a graphical representation in the x-y form of data distribution in a data set. The horizontal x-axis is labeled with what the data ...

Relative Frequency Histogram

The relative frequency depicts the proportion of data points that have each value. The frequency tells the number of data points that have each value. ...

Scatter Plot

The most common and easiest way to display the relationship between two variables, x and y, is a scatter plot. A scatter plot shows the direction of a ...

Time-Series Graph

A time-series graph is a line graph with repeated measurements taken at successive intervals of time. It is also called a time series chart. To construct ...

Bar Graph

A bar graph is also called a bar chart and consists of bars that are separated from each other. It either uses horizontal or vertical bars to show ...

Multiple Bar Graph

As the name suggests, a multiple bar graph is the same as a bar graph but has multiple bars to depict relationships between different data values. One can ...

Pareto Chart

A Pareto chart is a bar graph or a combination of both line and bar graphs. The bar lengths represent the individual values or the frequency, while the ...

Pie Chart

A pie chart (or a pie graph) is a circular graphical chart or a pictorial representation of categorical data. It is divided into slices of pie each ...

Organize quantitative or qualitative data using representations appropriate to the specialized topic of study such as scatter plots, line graphs, bar graphs, charts, data tables, diagrams, scientific drawings, and student-prepared models;

112.51.c.1.F.

Modeling and Similitude

A scaled model of a dam is tested in a controlled environment to observe how it will manage water flow, turbulence, and pressure.
This setup predicts the ...

Typical Model Studies

Typical model studies analyze scaled-down systems to predict fluid behavior, focusing on interactions with free surfaces and flow around immersed bodies.
...

design-example-creating-a-hydraulic-model-of-a-dam-spillway

Design Example: Creating a Hydraulic Model of a Dam Spillway

A hydraulic model of a dam spillway is often created by scaling down the design, typically to a 1:15 ratio, to replicate key flow characteristics such as ...

Models, Theories, and Laws

Scientists frequently use models to help them comprehend a specific collection of phenomena. In physics, a model is a condensed version of a physical ...

/files/media/science-education/science-education-thumbs/14686.jpg

Concepts and Prototypes

The human nervous system translates sensory stimuli into neural impulses, which the brain processes into information as thoughts and memories, forming ...

Molecular Models

Physical models representing molecular architectures of chemical compounds play essential roles in understanding chemistry. The use of molecular models ...

Develop and use models to represent phenomena, systems, processes, or solutions to problems as appropriate to the specialized topic of study; and

112.51.c.1.G.

Scientific Laws and Theories

Scientific Laws

In science, a law is defined as a concise, verbal or mathematical, statement that summarizes a vast number of experimental observations. ...

Distinguish among scientific hypotheses, theories, and laws as appropriate to the specialized topic of study.

112.51.c.1.H.

Scientific and engineering practices. The student, for at least 40% of instructional time, asks questions, identifies problems, and plans and safely conducts classroom, laboratory, and field investigations to explain phenomena or design solutions using appropriate tools and models. The student is expected to:

Centrifuge Safety and Sample Separation

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