Name: safe use of lab heat and cold sources
Uploaded: 2023-04-30T06:56:38.000Z
Duration: 10 min 13 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills

High School

Specialised Topic in Science

112.51.c.1.

112.51.c.1.C.

Working with Hot and Cold Sources

1. Bunsen Burner
<ol>
	<li>Safe handling procedure
	<ol>
		<li>The Bunsen burner should always be placed no less than 12 inches away from any overhead shelving, equipment, or light fixtures.</li>
		<li>Any combustible substances, such as papers or chemicals, should not be kept in the area adjacent to the burner.</li>
		<li>The user should know the location of the fire extinguisher.</li>
		<li>Proper clothing is necessary. The user should wear a lab coat, safety glasses, and gloves. Any long hair or jewellery should be tied back. It is recommended to remove all jewellery worn while working with open flames.</li>
		<li>Before lighting the burner, the hose connected to the gas source should be checked for any leaks or holes.</li>
		<li>Anyone working in the nearby area should be notified that the burner will be in use. Appropriate signage should be used that alerts users to the burner operation.</li>
		<li>A lighter with an extended nozzle should be used to light the burner.</li>
		<li>An open flame should never be left unattended. The gas should be shut off immediately after use.</li>
		<li>The burner should be allowed to cool down before handling or cleaning, if necessary, after use.</li>
		<li>In case of fire or emergency, a call to 911 should be placed immediately.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
2. Hot Plates
<ol>
	<li>Features of hot plates
	<ol>
		<li>Most hot plates have a built-in magnetic stirrer, which is used for running experiments that need to be continuously stirred while being heated.</li>
		<li>The surfaces of most hot plates are made from aluminum or ceramic. A hot plate should be selected based on temperature requirements and compatibility of the surface with the materials being heated.</li>
		<li>Most hot plates either have a digital read-out or a thermocouple input for maintaining the desired temperature.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
<ol>
	<li>Safe handling procedure
	<ol>
		<li>The user should be well acquainted with the use of the hot plate. He/she should be aware of the functions of the different parts of the hot plate-on-off switches, temperature controller, stirrer controller, and thermocouple, if used. If stirring is required, a proper temperature bath (e.g., silicone oil) and stir bar will be required. Be sure to verify that the chosen bath fluid is compatible with the temperatures at which the experiment will be conducted.</li>
		<li>Proper laboratory attire is mandatory. The user should wear a lab coat, safety glasses, and gloves. Heat-protection gloves should be worn when handling hot samples.</li>
		<li>The user should know the location of the fire extinguisher. Liquid nitrogen or water should never be used to extinguish fire from oil bath being heated on a hot plate. Water is immiscible in oil and will therefore be ineffective for extinguishing any flames derived from burning oil. If liquid nitrogen is poured on hot oil, the nitrogen will quickly evaporate, causing the oil to splatter.</li>
		<li>The glassware used for heating should be heat resistant, such as borosilicate, and inspected for any damage or cracks before use.</li>
		<li>The user should be well aware of the physical and chemical properties of the chemicals being heated. If necessary, condensers or operation within a vented fume hood should be employed.</li>
		<li>Any object being heated must be smaller in size than the hot plate.</li>
		<li>Any flammable or combustible chemicals or materials should be kept away from hot plates.</li>
		<li>It is recommended to use hot plates inside a fume hood, especially when heating volatile or potentially toxic materials.</li>
		<li>Hot plates should not be used for heating solvents or materials which have a very low boiling point, such as ether. These substances pose a significant risk of fire. A water bath should be used for such materials.</li>
		<li>An open beaker or flask with chemicals or solvents should never be heated on a hot plate. A condenser should be used to prevent sublimation of chemicals on heating.</li>
		<li>If solvents need to be added when the system is already hot, a dropping funnel should be used instead of a simple funnel. Direct addition of solvents may create a flash fire.</li>
		<li>Metal foil or metal containers should never be placed on the hot plate. This can cause the top to be damaged and may lead to the user getting burned more easily.</li>
		<li>No hot plate should be left unattended. After use, when the heating is turned off, the plate should be marked as hot until it has cooled down completely.</li>
	</ol>
	3. Dry Ice
	<ol>
		<li>Safe handling procedure
		<ol>
			<li>Dry ice is extremely cold (-78.5 &#176;C). Protective gloves should be worn whenever handling it. A brief touch may be harmless, but prolonged contact can cause skin cells to freeze, causing a burn to the skin.</li>
			<li>Dry ice should be stored in a polystyrene container in a -80 &#176;C freezer to minimize its sublimation.</li>
			<li>A completely airtight container should never be used to store dry ice since its sublimation to carbon dioxide gas can cause the container to expand or even explode in extreme cases.</li>
			<li>The storage area should be properly ventilated.The sublimated carbon dioxide gas, (which is toxic at higher concentrations) may sink to low areas and replace oxygenated air. This could cause suffocation if prolonged periods of time are spent in areas of high CO2 concentration.</li>
			<li>After use, dry ice should never be disposed of in the sink or trash can. It can either be allowed to evaporate off inside a fume hood or stored in the freezer.</li>
			<li>Dry ice sublimates at about 5-10 pounds every 24 h (blocks last longer) in a typical storage cooler1. Hence, plan to purchase dry ice as close as possible to the time it is needed.</li>
			<li>In case of dry ice burns, the area should be immediately washed under cold water for at least 10 min. A first responder should be contacted who can cover up the area with sterile dressing or refer the person for medical attention.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
	</ol>
	4. Liquid Nitrogen
	<ol>
		<li>Primary hazards
		<ol>
			<li>Liquid nitrogen has a boiling point of &#8722;195.79 &#176;C, which can cause burns to the skin if contacted, while eye exposure can lead to permanent eye damage even from a brief exposure.</li>
			<li>Asphyxiation is the condition of oxygen deficiency. Liquid nitrogen can expand 695 times in volume, and upon vaporization can cause extreme oxygen deficiency in the surrounding air, leading to suffocation, unconsciousness, and death under extreme circumstances.</li>
			<li>While transferring liquid nitrogen, oxygen in the air surrounding the cryogen containment system can dissolve and create an oxygen-enriched environment. During the transfer of liquid nitrogen from a dewar to another vessel, care should be taken to reduce the exposure of the liquid nitrogen to the ambient air, due to the liquefaction of oxygen. The boiling point of nitrogen is lower than oxygen, leading to a faster rate of evaporation of oxygen and a subsequent increase in the concentration of liquid O2 in N2. In addition to causing burns (like any other cryogen), liquid O2 is flammable and must be handled accordingly. Equipment requiring cryogenic cooling should be free of combustible materials to reduce fire and explosion occurrences. Condensed oxygen in a cold trap may combine with organic material in the trap to create an explosive mixture2.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
		<li>Safe handling procedures
		<ol>
			<li>The use of liquid nitrogen should be done in well-ventilated areas.</li>
			<li>Special vacuum-sealed containers, called dewars, can withstand the low temperatures of cryogens and should be used for storage and transportation. Cryogens should never be stored in tightly sealed containers.</li>
			<li>Liquid nitrogen should not be stored in uncovered containers for long periods.</li>
			<li>The storage cylinders or Dewar flasks should not be more than 80% full.</li>
			<li>Liquid nitrogen containers should never be touched with bare hands. The extreme cold can cause the skin to stick to the container walls.</li>
			<li>Appropriate clothing while handling liquid nitrogen is mandatory. Lab coats, safety glasses, close-toed shoes, and thermal gloves should be worn. When pouring out liquid nitrogen from large containers, facial masks/helmets should also be worn, since the liquid tends to splatter a lot, especially when poured into a large vessel.</li>
			<li>In case of hazards or emergency situations, the affected person should be moved to an extremely well ventilated area and a physician should be called.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>

While the use of Bunsen burners, hot plates, dry ice, and liquid nitrogen is commonplace in the laboratory environment, all of them can cause potential hazards if not handled carefully. It is thus the duty of every user to follow all the safety guidelines to eliminate hazards to themselves and their co-workers.

working with hot and cold sources

Source: Robert M. Rioux &amp; Suprita Jharimune, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA
Working with extreme temperatures, both high and low, is an integral part of many laboratory operations. For many, mentioning a laboratory instantly evokes the mental picture of a Bunsen burner. Bunsen burners and hot plates are used extensively in small and large operations in research laboratories and industries, thus making it necessary for all users to be aware of their safe handling procedures. Hot plates and Bunsen burners are high temperature heat sources, while low temperatures are obtained using dry ice and cryogenic liquids, such as liquid nitrogen. Both dry ice and liquid nitrogen can pose significant hazards to the user if not handled carefully.

Source: Robert M. Rioux &amp; Suprita Jharimune, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA
Working with extreme temperatures, both high and low, ...

The application of extreme temperature techniques is an essential part in scientific research and industrial processes. Hence adequate safety training is a prerequisite to avoid injuries.High temperatures are often required for chemical reactions or distillations. Open flames are frequently used for sterilization and modification of laboratory and medical equipment.On the other hand, very low temperatures are often necessary to control highly exothermic reactions and for cooling of instruments such as a nuclear magnetic resonance spectrometer or a Schlenk line.Hot plates and Bunsen burners are commonly used for high temperature operations, while dry ice or liquid nitrogen is applied for extreme cooling. However, all of these sources can provide significant hazards if not handled carefully.This video will illustrate the hazardous nature of extreme temperature techniques, how to safely operate and work with these sources, and what to do in case of an emergency.A Bunsen burner uses methane, propane, or butane to create an open flame. The temperature of this flame can be roughly adjusted between 250-1200 degrees Celsius.In comparison, a hot plate consists of a flat surface made of aluminum or ceramics and uses electricity to generate heat. Hot plates do not have open flames and can be controlled more accurately with temperatures ranging between 50-350?C.If necessary, higher temperatures can be achieved with special hot plates reaching up to 1250?C. To avoid fire hazards, the open flames and high temperatures of hot sources should be handled very carefully.Cold sources can be hazardous as well. Dry ice, which is the solid form of carbon dioxide, provides temperatures as low as -78?C. In addition to cold burns, excessive sublimation of dry ice could lead to carbon dioxide gas build up in a very short time, posing a danger of hypercapnia.Lastly, liquid nitrogen - a cryogenic fluid - is used when even lower temperatures are necessary. It can provide a bath temperature as low as -196?C.Liquid nitrogen can expand 695 times in volume, and upon vaporization can cause extreme oxygen deficiency in the surrounding air, leading to suffocation, unconsciousness, and death under extreme circumstances.In addition, prolonged exposure to skin can quickly result in frostbite. Short exposure to the eye fluids can permanently damage the eyes.Now that you know about the properties and hazards of the heat and cold sources, let's take a look at how to safely work with these components.Before using any hot source, make yourself familiar about the location of a fire extinguisher and a fire blanket. Remove jewelry and tie back long hair. Always wear a lab coat, safety glasses, close-toed shoes, and gloves. You should also consider using thermal protective gloves, which insulate effectively up to 650 ?C.Clean the area of any combustible substances such as paper or chemicals. Place the Bunsen burner away from overhead equipment, or light fixtures by at least 12 inches. Check the hose connection to the gas source for any leaks and use appropriate signage to notify that burner is in operation. Use a lighter with an extended nozzle for lighting the burner.Once the Bunsen burner is operating, never leave the open flame unattended. When you are done, close the valve on the Bunsen burner, shut off the gas immediately and close the connection to the gas source, letting the burner cool before handling or cleaning after use.Many hot plates come with a built-in magnetic stirrer, digital read-out and a thermocouple input for adjusting and maintaining the temperature.Like for the Bunsen burner, know the location of the fire extinguisher and which type to use. Never use water or liquid nitrogen to extinguish oil bath fire, but instead a class B fire extinguisher.Always wear personal protective equipment while working with a hotplate. When heating volatile and hazardous substances, remove flammable or combustible materials from around the hot plate and place the hot plate in the hood.Once you have familiarized yourself with the properties and scale of your experiment, choose the right size hot plate, heat resistant and crack free glassware made of borosilicate, and an oil bath.Make sure the experiment temperature is below the flashpoint of your oil bath. Always use a condenser, when heating volatile solvents or substances.If solvent needs to be added to the heated experiment, use a pressure-equalizing dropping funnel. Do not add solvent directly, as it might cause a flash fire. As with the Bunsen burner, do not leave the hot plate unattended.Materials with a very low boiling point, such as diethyl ether, should be heated using a water bath instead of an oil bath to avoid a significant risk of fire. If metal foil or metal containers, such as aluminum blocks, are used for heating, special attention and caution should be applied. In comparison to an oil bath, it is not possible to see if it is hot or cold, therefore always check the temperature with a thermometer and use heat-resistant gloves. Now that you have learned about the use of hot sources, let's take a look at the other extreme - the cold sources.Dry ice should be stored in a polystyrene container and if possible in a cold room to minimize sublimation. Store dry ice in properly ventilated areas to avoid hypercapnia. Do not use a completely airtight container to avoid expansion of the container and possibly an explosion caused by subliming dry ice.Wear protective personal equipment when handling dry ice. For extra protection, you can wear cryogenic gloves, which contain a multi-layer insulation against the low temperatures. Furthermore, to obtain and transport small quantities of dry ice, use a big plastic scoop and a polystyrene bucket.When finished, either put the clean dry ice back into the storing container or allow it to sublime. If a cooling bath was made using dry ice, dispose of it in the hazardous waste container. Never, dispose dry ice directly in the sink or trash can.Liquid nitrogen is stored and handled using Dewars, which is a type of double-walled containers with a vacuum in between the walls.Always wear protective personal equipment when handling liquid nitrogen. This includes insulating gloves and a facial mask, especially when pouring liquid nitrogen as the liquid tends to splatter.Make sure all areas are well ventilated. When transferring liquid nitrogen, never fill the Dewar more than 80% full and never close the container tightly to prevent pressure build up. Furthermore, extra precaution should be taken when using a Schlenk line. If the cold trap is immersed in liquid nitrogen, and air is being pulled, it can condense oxygen into the cooling trap, creating explosive mixtures of liquid oxygen with organic materials in the trap.Remember, that hot and cold sources can be a hazard and a health risk.In case of a small fire use the appropriate extinguisher. If the fire is too large, pull the fire alarm or call 911. Evacuate the building following the emergency instructions of your institution.In case of a skin burn caused by a hot source, hold the affected area under cold water for at least 10 minutes. In case of a cold burn, hold the affected area under tepid and not hot water for at least 10 minutes. Do not rub the affected area, apply a sterile dressing, and seek further medical attention.In case of splashes of either very hot or cold substances in your eyes, immediately flush with copious amount of water using eyewash and seek medical attention.In case of dizziness or consciousness loss, when working with liquid nitrogen or dry ice, move the affected person into a well-ventilated area and seek further medical attention if necessary.You've just watched JoVE's introduction to working with hot and cold sources. You should now understand the hazards of these materials, how to safely work with them, and what to do in case of an emergency such as a fire or burn. As always, thanks for watching!

Education

JoVE Science Education

Basic Biology

Lab Safety

safe use of lab heat and cold sources

Safe use of lab heat and cold sources is an important part of laboratory work. Extreme temperatures are common in many lab tasks. They can involve both high heat and very low temperatures.

Bunsen burners and hot plates are widely used in research labs and industry. A Bunsen burner is a gas burner that gives a direct flame. A hot plate is an electric device that warms containers without an open flame. Because these tools reach high temperatures, users need to follow safe handling procedures.

Low temperatures are often created with dry ice and cryogenic liquids, such as liquid nitrogen. Dry ice is solid carbon dioxide that stays very cold. Cryogenic liquids are substances kept at extremely low temperatures. Both dry ice and liquid nitrogen can be hazardous if they are not handled carefully.

Safe Use of Lab Heat and Cold Sources

proper personal protective equipment

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Preventing Lab Electric Shock and Fires

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Centrifuge Safety and Sample Separation

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Safe use of lab heat and cold sources is an important part of laboratory work. Extreme temperatures are common in many lab tasks. They can involve both high heat and very low temperatures. Bunsen burners and hot plates are widely used in research labs and industry. A Bunsen burner is a gas burner that gives a direct flame. A hot plate is an electric device that warms containers without an open flame. Because these tools reach high temperatures, users need to follow safe handling procedures. <br...

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Mineral Acids in the Lab

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Chemical Spill Safety in the Lab

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Schlenk Line Setup for Inert Atmospheres

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Lab Cleaning Methods for Biosafety

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Lab Waste Management and Safety

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lab safety

This collection provides safety guidelines to be followed when working with hazardous materials and equipment. It covers universal topics such as PPE, electrical safety, and general emergency guidelines, as well as some specific safety procedures for chemistry and biology laboratories.

Learn how Bunsen burners, hot plates, dry ice, and liquid nitrogen are used in labs, and why safe handling matters for hot and cold sources.

Safe Use of Lab Heat and Cold Sources | JoVE K12

Chemistry

CHEM.1

CHEM.1.C

Biology

BIO.1

BIO.1.C

Chemistry and Physics

IPC.1

IPC.1.C

Robert Rioux

Overview

Principles and Properties of Hot and Cold Sources

Safe Handling of Hot Sources

Safe Handling of Cold Sources

Emergency Measures

Summary

The Scientific Method

The scientific method is a detailed, empirical problem-solving process used by biologists and other scientists. This iterative approach involves ...

Inductive Reasoning

Inductive reasoning is a form of logical thinking that uses related observations to arrive at a general conclusion. It is uncertain and operates in ...

Deductive Reasoning

Deductive reasoning, or deduction, is the type of logic used in hypothesis-based science. In deductive reasoning, the pattern of thinking moves in the ...

Correlation and Causation

Correlation and CausationStatistical tests can calculate whether there is a relationship, or correlation, between independent and dependent variables. A ...

Ask questions and define problems related to specialized topics of study based on observations or information from text, phenomena, models, or investigations;

112.51.c.1.A.

Scientific Method

The scientific method is used to solve problems and explain phenomena. The development of the scientific method coincided with changes in philosophy ...

Demonstrating the Scientific Method with Tree Branches
ExpandObtain branches containing a few dozen typical leaves from five different local tree species. ...

Observation and Background Research
ExpandNOTE: The first two steps in the scientific process involve studying and observing natural phenomena of ...

Problem-Solving

A problem-solving strategy is a plan of action used to find a solution. It involves trial and error, algorithms, heuristics, and insights. Effective ...

Problem Definition

Problem definition is the initial and the most essential step in research.
The researcher identifies and explains the specific issue or gap to be ...

Apply science practices related to specialized topics of study to plan and conduct investigations or use engineering practices to design solutions to problems;

112.51.c.1.B.

Proper Personal Protective Equipment

Robert M. Rioux &#38; William A Elliott, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA
Hazards are many and varied in the laboratory, but the right ...

Emergency Eyewash and Shower Stations

Robert M. Rioux, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA
The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) mandates that an emergency ...

Electrical Safety

Robert M. Rioux &amp; Suprita Jharimune, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA
Among the many hazards present in the laboratory, electrical ...

Working with Centrifuges

Source: Robert M. Rioux &amp; Suprita Jharimune, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA
Earth's gravitational force is capable of separating ...

Guidelines in Case of a Laboratory Emergency

Robert M. Rioux &amp; Zhifeng Chen, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA
The most common laboratory emergencies include chemical spills, ...

Chemical Storage: Categories, Hazards And Compatibilities

Source: Robert M. Rioux &amp; Taslima A. Zaman, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA
While the use of various chemicals in experimental ...

Safe Handling of Mineral Acids

Source: Robert M. Rioux &#38; Taslima A. Zaman, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA
A mineral acid (or inorganic acid) is defined as a ...

Handling Chemical Spills

Source: Robert M. Rioux &#38; Taslima Zaman, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA
Since chemicals are commonly used for laboratory research ...

Proper Use of Autoclaves

Robert M. Rioux &amp; Zhifeng Chen, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA
Autoclaving is one of the most commonly used methods in the ...

Fume Hoods and Laminar Flow Cabinets

Robert M. Rioux &amp; William A. Elliott, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA
Fume hoods and laminar flow cabinets are engineering controls ...

Decontamination for Laboratory Biosafety

Robert M. Rioux and Zhifeng Chen, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA
Decontamination is essential for laboratory biosafety, as the ...

Proper Waste Disposal

Robert M. Rioux and Taslima A. Zaman, Pennsylvania State University, Pennsylvania, PA

Users are responsible for the proper disposal of the waste ...

Use appropriate safety equipment and practices during laboratory, classroom, and field investigations as outlined in Texas Education Agency-approved safety standards;

Common Lab Glassware and Uses

Source: Laboratory of Dr. Neal Abrams &#8212; SUNY College of Environmental Science and Forestry
Glassware is a regular appearance in the professional ...

Lab Techniques

Measurement Accuracy
The ability to repeat an experiment and get the same results, or reproducibility, is essential in scientific research. However, ...

Source: Smaa Koraym at Johns Hopkins University, MD, USA

	Preparation of LaboratoryExpand
	Here we show the laboratory preparation for 10 students ...

Source: Smaa Koraym at Johns Hopkins University, MD, USA

	Determining the Density of an EggExpand
	Density is a measure of how compact a substance or ...

Proper Lab Notebook Keeping

Organic Lab Notebook Keeping
Record keeping is a vital skill in science and organic chemistry labs. Without proper notes, descriptions, quantities, or ...

Source: Lara Al Hariri at the University of Massachusetts Amherst, MA, USA

	Preparation of the LaboratoryExpand
	Here, we show the laboratory preparation ...

Source: Lara Al Hariri and Ahmed Basabrain at the University of Massachusetts Amherst, MA, USA

	Nitration of Methyl BenzoateExpand
	From this lab onward, ...

Use tools appropriate to the specialized topic of study;

112.51.c.1.D.

SI Units: 2019 Redefinition

Measurement is integral to analytical chemistry. Each record comprises a number &#8211; denoting the magnitude&#160; &#8211; and the unit &#8211; a ...

International System of Units

The International System of Units, known as the SI system, is a universally accepted measurement system recognized and used worldwide. The SI system is ...

Measurement: Standard Units

Every measurement provides three kinds of information: the size or magnitude of the measurement (a number), a standard of comparison for the measurement ...

Measurement: Derived Units

The International System of Units or SI system, by international agreement, has fixed measurement units for seven fundamental properties: length, mass, ...

Collect quantitative data using the International System of Units (SI) or qualitative data as evidence as appropriate to the specialized topic of study;

112.51.c.1.E.

Review and Preview

Data are individual items of information obtained from a population or sample. Data may be classified as qualitative (categorical), quantitative ...

What is a Frequency Distribution

A frequency is the number of times a value of the data occurs. The sum of all the frequency values represents the total number of students included in the ...

Cumulative Frequency Distribution

A cumulative frequency distribution is another type of frequency distribution. Instead of reporting how many data values fall in some classes, it reports ...

Ogive Graph

An ogive graph is sometimes called a cumulative frequency polygon. It is one type of frequency polygon that shows cumulative frequency. In other words, ...

Histogram

The histogram is a graphical representation in the x-y form of data distribution in a data set. The horizontal x-axis is labeled with what the data ...

Relative Frequency Histogram

The relative frequency depicts the proportion of data points that have each value. The frequency tells the number of data points that have each value. ...

Scatter Plot

The most common and easiest way to display the relationship between two variables, x and y, is a scatter plot. A scatter plot shows the direction of a ...

Time-Series Graph

A time-series graph is a line graph with repeated measurements taken at successive intervals of time. It is also called a time series chart. To construct ...

Bar Graph

A bar graph is also called a bar chart and consists of bars that are separated from each other. It either uses horizontal or vertical bars to show ...

Multiple Bar Graph

As the name suggests, a multiple bar graph is the same as a bar graph but has multiple bars to depict relationships between different data values. One can ...

Pareto Chart

A Pareto chart is a bar graph or a combination of both line and bar graphs. The bar lengths represent the individual values or the frequency, while the ...

Pie Chart

A pie chart (or a pie graph) is a circular graphical chart or a pictorial representation of categorical data. It is divided into slices of pie each ...

Organize quantitative or qualitative data using representations appropriate to the specialized topic of study such as scatter plots, line graphs, bar graphs, charts, data tables, diagrams, scientific drawings, and student-prepared models;

112.51.c.1.F.

Modeling and Similitude

A scaled model of a dam is tested in a controlled environment to observe how it will manage water flow, turbulence, and pressure.
This setup predicts the ...

Typical Model Studies

Typical model studies analyze scaled-down systems to predict fluid behavior, focusing on interactions with free surfaces and flow around immersed bodies.
...

design-example-creating-a-hydraulic-model-of-a-dam-spillway

Design Example: Creating a Hydraulic Model of a Dam Spillway

A hydraulic model of a dam spillway is often created by scaling down the design, typically to a 1:15 ratio, to replicate key flow characteristics such as ...

Models, Theories, and Laws

Scientists frequently use models to help them comprehend a specific collection of phenomena. In physics, a model is a condensed version of a physical ...

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Concepts and Prototypes

The human nervous system translates sensory stimuli into neural impulses, which the brain processes into information as thoughts and memories, forming ...

Molecular Models

Physical models representing molecular architectures of chemical compounds play essential roles in understanding chemistry. The use of molecular models ...

Develop and use models to represent phenomena, systems, processes, or solutions to problems as appropriate to the specialized topic of study; and

112.51.c.1.G.

Scientific and engineering practices. The student, for at least 40% of instructional time, asks questions, identifies problems, and plans and safely conducts classroom, laboratory, and field investigations to explain phenomena or design solutions using appropriate tools and models. The student is expected to:

Safe Use of Lab Heat and Cold Sources

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