Name: how cells control gene expression
Uploaded: 2020-11-23T11:47:37.000Z
Duration: 2 min 24 s
Channel: JoVE

Cells can precisely regulate gene expression at every step, from DNA to protein. This regulation occurs during transcription; during RNA processing, localization, and degradation; and during and after translation.&#160;
Transcriptional regulation is mediated by proteins that bind to regulatory sequences on DNA. These transcription factors are one of the most common ways to control gene expression and can either initiate transcription or prevent it.
Transcription generates pre mRNA that must be processed to mature mRNA through several regulated processes.&#160;
mRNA splicing, which removes the non-coding regions in precursor mRNA and joins the coding ones, controls gene expression through differential splicing patterns and RNA binding proteins.&#160; The addition of a poly-A tail and a 5&#8217; cap to produce the mature mRNA is also controlled.
Next, the mRNA must associate with RNA binding proteins to form a complex known as a ribonucleoparticle. This process is highly regulated, and only an mRNA that exists in a ribonucleoparticle can be transported from the nucleus to the cytoplasm to be translated.
Translational control is another crucial point for the regulation of gene expression. Regulation can be specific, where an individual or a subset mRNAs are involved, or general, where most mRNA transcripts are affected.&#160;
In specific regulation, inhibition of translation is controlled through interactions with trans-acting elements, such as proteins and certain types of RNA, including microRNAs and short interfering RNAs.
In general regulation, the various proteins involved in the translation machinery are activated or inhibited, which affects all transcripts.
Finally, post-translational modifications, such as phosphorylation, can either activate or deactivate proteins, while others, like ubiquitination, can lead to their degradation.

regulation of expression occurs at multiple steps

Regulation of Expression Occurs at Multiple Steps

Gene expression can be regulated at almost every step from gene to protein. Transcription is the step that is most commonly regulated. This involves the binding of proteins to short regulatory sequences on the DNA. This association can either promote or inhibit the transcription of a gene associated with the respective sequence.
Transcription results in the generation of precursor (pre-mRNA) that consists of both exons and introns, which needs further processing before being translated to a protein. This happens through mRNA splicing, which involves the removal of non-coding regions and merging of the coding ones. mRNA processing can also be used as a regulatory mechanism through variation in splicing patterns such as skipping of certain exons, alternative splicing, and inclusion of introns.&#160;
The addition of a poly-A tail at the 3&#8217; end and a 5&#8217; cap to produce the mature mRNA are also regulatory points during RNA processing. Regulation occurs through variation in the polyadenylation signal, which determines where the poly-A tail will be added onto the mRNA.&#160; In some cases, more than one poly-A signal is present at the 3&#8217; end which will change the length of the 3&#8217; untranslated region, but the final protein product will be the same. However, the stability and the translation potential the variants mRNA may differ, which can alter the amount of protein produced. In other cases, an additional poly-A signal is present on the intron or exon within the gene sequence which may lead to variation in splicing sites for polyadenylation and result in different proteins from the same strand of pre-mRNA.The addition of the 5&#8217; cap, which is made up of methylated guanosine, is regulated by two mechanisms.&#160; One involves the regulation of the methyltransferases that add the methyl group to the guanosine, and the other is through regulation of the cellular signaling pathways that lead to methylation.
Next, the mature mRNA needs to be transported from the nucleus to the cytoplasm through nuclear pore complexes (NPCs) to be translated. This is regulated by the mRNA to forming a complex, known as the ribonucleoparticle, with RNA binding proteins. NPCs only allow mRNAs that are in the complex to pass into the cytoplasm. Once an mRNA enters the cytoplasm for translation, it can either be targetted individually or as a part of a group through specific regulations, or it can undergo a common regulation with all other mRNAs in the cytoplasm. In specific regulation, particular trans-acting elements, like proteins and different types of RNAs, regulate transcription. In general regulation, the proteins involved in the translation machinery are activated or inhibited, which in turn affects the translation of all transcripts. The most common translational regulatory mechanism is the modification of the translation initiation factor.
Gene expression can also be regulated through post-translational modifications, where an enzyme-catalyzed reversible modification can alter the function of a protein. A common post-translational modification is phosphorylation, which is carried out by enzymes known as kinases. Dephosphorylation of proteins, on the other hand, is carried out by proteins known as phosphatases. Phosphorylation of a protein can result in its activation or deactivation and alter its function.

Gene expression can be regulated at almost every step from gene to protein. Transcription is the step that is most commonly regulated. This involves the ...

regulation-of-expression-occurs-at-multiple-steps

Education

JoVE Core

Molecular Biology

Unit 1

Gene Expression

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

how cells control gene expression

Cells control gene expression at several points between DNA and protein. The most common control point is transcription. At this stage, proteins bind to short regulatory DNA sequences and can either increase or reduce transcription of the linked gene.

After transcription, a precursor mRNA is made. This pre-mRNA contains exons, which code for protein, and introns, which do not. It must be processed before translation, and splicing removes the introns and joins the exons. Cells can also regulate gene expression through changes in splicing patterns, including skipping certain exons, alternative splicing, and including introns.

RNA processing also includes adding a 3' poly-A tail and a 5' cap to form mature mRNA. The poly-A tail is added at a site marked by a polyadenylation signal. In some cases, more than one poly-A signal is present at the 3' end. This can change the length of the 3' untranslated region without changing the final protein, but the mRNA variants may differ in stability and translation potential. In other cases, an extra poly-A signal in an intron or exon can change splicing during polyadenylation and produce different proteins from the same pre-mRNA strand.

The 5' cap is a methylated guanosine, and its addition is also regulated. One control route acts through methyltransferases, the enzymes that add the methyl group. Another route works through cellular signaling pathways that lead to methylation. After processing, mature mRNA must leave the nucleus through nuclear pore complexes. It does this by forming a ribonucleoparticle with RNA-binding proteins, and only mRNAs in this complex can pass into the cytoplasm.

Once mRNA reaches the cytoplasm, translation can be regulated in specific ways or in a more general way. Specific regulation affects particular transcripts through trans-acting elements such as proteins and different types of RNA. General regulation affects all cytoplasmic mRNAs by turning translation machinery proteins on or off. The most common translational control step is modification of the translation initiation factor. Gene expression can also change after a protein is made through post-translational modifications. A common example is phosphorylation, which is carried out by kinases, while phosphatases remove the phosphate group through dephosphorylation. Phosphorylation can activate or deactivate a protein and change its function.

How Cells Control Gene Expression

cell specific gene expression

How Cells Switch Genes On and Off

Cells switch genes on and off to make different proteins for different jobs. In multicellular organisms, many cell types are built from the same DNA, but they do not use the same genes in the same way. This difference in gene expression helps explain why cells can look and act so differently. Liver cells are a clear example. They help detoxify blood, make bile to help digest fats, and produce proteins needed for metabolism. To do these jobs, liver cells must express a specific set of genes.

Cells control gene expression at several points between DNA and protein. The most common control point is transcription. At this stage, proteins bind to short regulatory DNA sequences and can either increase or reduce transcription of the linked gene. After transcription, a precursor mRNA is made. This pre-mRNA contains exons, which code for protein, and introns, which do not. It must be processed before translation, and splicing removes the introns and joins the exons. Cells can also regulate...

cis-regulatory sequences

How Cis-Regulatory DNA Controls Transcription

Cis-regulatory sequences are short, non-coding DNA segments that control gene transcription. They sit on the same chromosome as the genes they regulate and act as binding sites for transcriptional regulators. In eukaryotes, these proteins help control gene expression patterns in different cell types. These DNA sequences can be close to a gene or thousands of bases away. When they are far from the gene in the DNA sequence, they are often brought close together in space because chromosomes are...

cooperative binding of transcription regulators

cooperative-binding-of-transcription-regulators

How Transcription Factors Bind DNA

Transcriptional regulators bind to cis-regulatory DNA sequences to control gene transcription. These DNA sequences are very short, usually fewer than ten nucleotide pairs long. Because they are so short, the same sequence can appear by chance in many places across the genome. Some regulators can also bind to groups of similar sequences. That raises the chance of random binding even more. To lower this risk, transcription regulators often form dimers, which are pairs of proteins that bind a DNA...

prokaryotic transcriptional activators and repressors

prokaryotic-transcriptional-activators-and-repressors

Operon Control by Activators and Repressors

Operon control in prokaryotes depends on activators and repressors. Prokaryotic genes are often arranged in groups, not one by one like in eukaryotes. Genes that help carry out the same biochemical process are placed together with their regulatory elements. This group is called an operon, and it is transcribed into a single polycistronic mRNA strand. Activators and repressors are DNA-binding proteins that control transcription in an operon. Activators bind near the promoter, which is the site...

operons

Operons in Bacterial Gene Control

Operons help bacteria control groups of genes at the same time. An operon is a set of genes that are regulated together and can be turned on or off as a unit. This shared control helps bacteria respond quickly to changes in their environment. In many operons, a promoter gives RNA polymerase a place to bind and start transcription. The operon also includes a regulatory region that helps control whether the genes are expressed. When conditions change, the cell can use this setup to manage gene...

the eukaryotic promoter region

Eukaryotic Promoter Motifs and Gene Control

The eukaryotic promoter region is a stretch of DNA located upstream of a gene. It includes an RNA polymerase binding site, a transcription start site, and several cis-regulatory sequences. These DNA signals help control when transcription begins. The promoter can be divided into proximal and distal regions. The proximal promoter lies close to the gene and includes cis-regulatory sequences and the core promoter. The core promoter is the RNA polymerase binding site, and it is usually found...

co-activators and co-repressors

Chromatin Control in Gene Transcription

Chromatin control plays a major role in gene transcription in eukaryotes. Gene expression is regulated by several proteins that work together at a gene regulatory site. Some of these proteins bind directly to specific DNA sequences, while co-regulators attach to those regulators but do not bind DNA on their own. Co-regulators can act as co-activators or co-repressors, depending on the complex they join. One co-regulator may even switch roles in different settings. For example, the...

eukaryotic transcription activators

How Transcription Activators Turn Genes On

Transcription activators are proteins that help turn genes on by promoting transcription from DNA to RNA. They often have two parts. One part binds to DNA, and the other part activates transcription. In some proteins, such as the glucocorticoid receptor and MyoD, one domain can do both jobs. The DNA-binding part recognizes specific regulatory sequences on the DNA. These binding domains are grouped into families based on their structure. Common examples include the leucine zipper, zinc finger,...

eukaryotic transcription inhibitors

How Eukaryotic Gene Repressors Work

Eukaryotic gene repressors help turn specific genes off when the cell needs to control growth, development, or other biochemical processes. These DNA-binding proteins regulate gene expression in eukaryotes. Their presence at the right time and place can be triggered by hormones and signals from other cells. Most transcription inhibitors have two main parts. One part binds DNA, and the other is a repressor domain, which helps shut down transcription. Repressor domains can connect with basal...

combinatorial gene control

Gene Expression by Transcription Factor Combinations

Gene expression can depend on combinations of transcription factors working together. In combinatorial gene control, several transcription factors act in a coordinated way to regulate a single gene. If one or more of these factors are missing, the level of gene expression or repression can change a lot. This kind of control helps explain how a relatively small number of transcription factors can regulate a very large number of genes. More than 30,000 genes are controlled by about 2,000 to...

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Reprogramming Cells into Stem Cells

Induced pluripotent stem cells are created by reprogramming mature cells back into a stem-cell state. This process shows that specialized cells can be changed into cells with broader developmental potential. The topic is important in biology because it links cell identity, gene control, and stem cell research. These cells begin as ordinary body cells and are pushed to de-differentiate, or lose their specialized features. After reprogramming, they behave like pluripotent stem cells, which means...

master transcription regulators

MEF2C and Gene Control Cascades

MEF2C is a master transcription regulator that controls gene expression in coordinated cascades. These regulators are proteins that manage the activity of multiple genes that often work together to produce a complex outcome. When a master transcription regulator is activated, it can start a chain of transcriptional activation that supports that outcome. Master transcription regulators can act in two main ways. They may bind directly to the regulatory sequences of several genes involved in a...

epigenetic regulation

DNA Methylation and Histone Changes

Epigenetic regulation controls gene activity without changing the DNA sequence. It helps determine when genes are turned on or off in a cell. Two major epigenetic mechanisms are DNA methylation and histone modification. DNA methylation adds chemical groups to DNA, while histone changes affect how tightly DNA is packed around histone proteins. These changes can make genes easier or harder to use. In high school biology, epigenetic regulation is important for understanding how cells with the...

genomic imprinting and inheritance

Genomic Imprinting in Human Disease

Genomic imprinting affects how some inherited genes are turned on or off in human cells. Diploid organisms inherit chromosomes from both parents, and each gene usually has two alleles. In most cases, both alleles are expressed. If one allele is missing or mutated, the other can often compensate, but some genes do not work that way. In genomic imprinting, a gene or its regulatory sequence carries chemical tags, such as methyl groups, on the copy inherited from only one parent. These tags are...

key terms and concepts

Explore how gene expression is controlled at transcription, RNA processing, mRNA export, translation, and protein phosphorylation in high school biology.

How Cells Control Gene Expression | JoVE K12

molecular biology

JoVE Core Molecular Biology showcases the molecular processes of the cell through clear and concise animated video lessons. Additionally, in scientist-in-action videos, these concepts' application is demonstrated through real experiments in modern laboratories.

How Cells Control Gene Expression

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