Name: heating and cooling during phase changes
Uploaded: 2024-04-04T10:51:23.000Z
Duration: 59 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

north-carolina-k-12-science-standard-course-of-study

North Carolina K-12 Science Standard Course of Study

9-12

Chemistry

Energy

PS.Chm.7.1

States of Matter and Phase Changes

Matter typically exists in the solid, liquid, or gaseous state. In gases, the high-energy molecules move quickly and are far apart, so attractive intermolecular forces are weak.
Changes in temperature, pressure, or both can trigger phase transitions, or phase changes, between states of matter.
During these transitions, energy flows to or from the system without a change in temperature.
The energy change required for the complete transition of one mole of a substance is the molar enthalpy of that transition.
Compressing or cooling a gas makes it harder for the molecules to move away from each other, transforming them into a denser, less compressible liquid.
Cooling the liquid reduces the kinetic energy, transforming it into a densely packed arrangement of an incompressible solid.

states of matter and phase changes

The internal energy of a substance&#8212;the total kinetic energy of all its molecules and the potential energy of their associated forces&#8212;depends on the strength of the intermolecular forces in the condensed phases and the pressure exerted on the substance. The internal energy of a substance is the highest in the gaseous state, the lowest in the solid state, and intermediate in the liquid state. Phase transitions are caused by changes in physical conditions, such as temperature and pressure, that affect intermolecular interactions. For example, the addition of heat to a substance causes the thermal energy of its particles to increase. When the total heat added causes the particles in a solid to vibrate fast enough to overcome their intermolecular attraction, they move out of their fixed positions. This phase transition is called melting, and the point at which it occurs is the solid&#39;s melting point. As the temperature increases further, the particles move faster until they finally escape into the gaseous state. This is vaporization, and the point at which it occurs is the liquid&#39;s boiling point. During a phase transition, molecules exist in both phases simultaneously and the temperature of the substance stays constant despite the continuous influx of heat. After the transition of the bulk of the substance is completed, the temperature of the substance rises.
The phase transition point and the energy change associated with the transition depend on the intermolecular forces that exist in the substance. At a given pressure, substances with stronger intermolecular forces require more energy to undergo phase transitions, so these transitions occur at higher temperatures than substances with weaker intermolecular interactions. The energy required to cause the complete phase transition of one mole of a substance, without a change in temperature, is called the molar heat or molar enthalpy of that transition. For example, the energy required to vaporize one mole of a liquid is called the molar enthalpy of vaporization. Reactions or transitions that absorb energy are endothermic, and reactions or transitions that release energy are exothermic. Reactions that absorb energy have positive enthalpy values while reactions that release energy have negative enthalpy values. For example, while the molar enthalpy of vaporization is positive, the molar enthalpy of condensation is negative, so vaporization is an endothermic process while condensation is exothermic.

The internal energy of a substance&#8212;the total kinetic energy of all its molecules and the potential energy of their associated forces&#8212;depends ...

Education

JoVE Core

Analytical Chemistry

Unit 1

Introduction to Separation Methods

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

heating and cooling during phase changes

Heating and cooling can change a substance from one state of matter to another. These phase changes depend on internal energy, which is the total kinetic energy of particles and the potential energy from their interactions. In the condensed phases, stronger intermolecular forces and the pressure on the substance affect that internal energy. The internal energy is highest in the gaseous state, lowest in the solid state, and in between for the liquid state.

Phase transitions happen when temperature or pressure changes alter intermolecular interactions. When heat is added, the thermal energy of the particles increases. In a solid, the particles can vibrate fast enough to overcome their attraction and leave fixed positions. This change is melting, and the temperature where it happens is the melting point.

If heating continues, the particles move faster and eventually escape into the gaseous state. This change is vaporization, and the temperature where it happens is the boiling point of the liquid. During a phase transition, molecules are present in both phases at the same time. The temperature stays constant even though heat keeps being added. After the bulk of the substance finishes changing phase, the temperature rises again.

The temperature of a phase change depends on the intermolecular forces in the substance. At the same pressure, substances with stronger intermolecular forces need more energy to change phase. As a result, they change at higher temperatures than substances with weaker intermolecular attractions. The energy needed to change one mole of a substance completely without changing temperature is called the molar heat, or molar enthalpy, of the transition.

For vaporization, this energy is the molar enthalpy of vaporization. It is positive because vaporization absorbs energy, so it is an endothermic process. Condensation has the opposite sign. It releases energy, so it is exothermic and has a negative enthalpy value.

Heating and Cooling During Phase Changes

Heating and cooling can change a substance from one state of matter to another. These phase changes depend on internal energy, which is the total kinetic energy of particles and the potential energy from their interactions. In the condensed phases, stronger intermolecular forces and the pressure on the substance affect that internal energy. The internal energy is highest in the gaseous state, lowest in the solid state, and in between for the liquid state. Phase transitions happen when...

distillation: vapor&ndash;liquid equilibria

Distillation and Boiling Point Changes

Distillation separates a miscible liquid mixture by using differences in boiling points. It works best when the two liquids have a significant boiling point gap, usually at least 20°C. In this process, the mixture is heated until the more volatile component reaches its bubble point and begins to vaporize. The vapor then rises into a condenser. A condenser is a glass tube with separate inner and outer sections. Cold water flows through the outer section and cools the vapor in the inner section,...

filtration

Filtration Setup and Filtrate Collection

Filtration separates a solid from a liquid by passing a suspension through a porous medium. The solid stays on the filter, and the liquid, called the filtrate, passes through. This makes filtration a physical separation process, not a chemical change. The filtering medium is chosen for the purpose of the separation, the amount of material, and the nature of the precipitate. A good filter medium should be inert, mechanically strong, nonabsorbent toward dissolved materials, and able to let...

centrifugation

Centrifugation for Separating Particles

Centrifugation separates particles in a liquid by using differences in size and density. The sample is placed in centrifugation tubes and spun at high angular velocity. This creates centrifugal force, which makes the different components move at different rates. After spinning, the supernatant, or liquid above the settled material, is decanted. In some cases, the pellet is kept for further purification. In other cases, the supernatant is kept and may be spun again for additional processing. <br...

sublimation

Sublimation in Separation and Purification

Sublimation is the direct change of a solid into a gas. It skips the liquid state. A common example is solid carbon dioxide, or dry ice, which turns into gaseous carbon dioxide at standard pressure and room temperature. The phase diagram shows when sublimation can happen. This process occurs at the solid-gas boundary. It is not seen above the triple point of a substance. The reverse process is deposition, which is when a gas changes directly into a solid. Sublimation and deposition can help...

recrystallization: solid&ndash;solution equilibria

recrystallization-solidsolution-equilibria

Recrystallization for Purifying Solid Compounds

Recrystallization is a way to purify solid compounds by using differences in solubility. It does not involve a chemical reaction. Instead, it relies on physical properties of the desired compound and the impurities. The process is based on solid-solution equilibrium, also called solubility equilibrium. In this equilibrium, a component is split between the solid phase and the solution phase. At equilibrium, the chemical potential of that component is the same in both phases. To begin...

crystal growth: principles of crystallization

crystal-growth-principles-of-crystallization

Crystal Formation Through Supersaturation

Crystal formation through supersaturation begins when a solution contains more dissolved solute than it can normally hold. In crystallization, atoms or molecules line up into a rigid crystal lattice so the system can lower its energy. To start the process, the solute concentration and the solution temperature must be adjusted so the supersaturation ratio, S, is greater than one. Supersaturation can be increased in two main ways. One method is to concentrate the solution by evaporating the...

precipitation and co-precipitation

Selective Ion Separation by Precipitation

Selective ion separation by precipitation is used to isolate ions from a solution. In qualitative inorganic analysis, ions that form sparingly soluble precipitates with the same reagent can be separated by using differences in their solubility products. A solubility product is the limit at which an ionic solid begins to form from dissolved ions. One example is the separation of Cu(II) and Fe(II) ions as insoluble sulfides. Copper(II) sulfide is first precipitated by adding acidic H2S. The acid...

coagulation

Wastewater Cleanup by Coagulation

Coagulation helps remove colloidal particles from wastewater. Colloids are tiny solid particles suspended in a liquid. They are usually negatively charged, so they attract a compact first layer of positive ions. More counterions gather around them and form an electrical double layer. This charge barrier keeps the particles apart and stabilizes the colloid. These suspended solids can be a problem because they may contain toxins that are hard to remove. Coagulation is used to make the particles...

electrodeposition

Electrodeposition for Metal Ion Separation

Electrodeposition separates metal ions from a solution by using an electric current and an electrolytic cell. The cell has an anode and a cathode. When current flows, oxidation happens at the anode. At the cathode, metal ions gain electrons, undergo reduction, and deposit on the large metal surface. This method works well when metals have very different reduction potentials. Copper and nickel in the same solution can be separated this way. First, the solution is made acidic. Then current is...

extraction: partition and distribution coefficients

extraction-partition-and-distribution-coefficients

Solvent Partitioning in Chemical Extraction

Solvent partitioning in chemical extraction describes how a solute spreads between two immiscible solvents. Immiscible solvents do not mix, such as an aqueous phase and an organic phase. The distribution law, also called Nernst's distribution law or the partition law, explains how that solute is shared at a constant temperature and equilibrium. At equilibrium, the ratio of solute concentrations in the two solvents stays constant. For extraction from water into an organic solvent, this...

extraction: effects of ph

pH Control in Liquid Extraction

pH control in liquid extraction changes how amines and acids move between organic and aqueous phases. The pH of the aqueous phase affects the charge on acidic and basic solutes. The charged form is usually more soluble in the aqueous phase. For a weak base such as an amine, the neutral form is called B. Its partition coefficient, K, describes how the neutral molecule distributes between the two liquids. If the conjugate acid of the amine is soluble only in the aqueous phase, while the base...

extraction: advanced methods

Chelate Extraction for Metal Ion Separation

Chelate extraction is a way to separate metal ions by using an organic ligand, or chelating agent, to form an uncharged metal complex. The chelating agent needs hydrophobic groups, and it must act as a weak acid so it can lose a proton and bind to the metal. Most organic ligands used for this method are not stable in water or are insoluble in the aqueous phase. For that reason, the chelating agent is first placed in the organic phase. It then moves into the aqueous phase, where the...

chromatography: introduction

Chromatography: Separation by Polarity

Chromatography separates compounds by how they divide between a stationary phase and a mobile phase. The stationary phase is the material that holds the compounds for a time. The mobile phase is the solvent that carries the solutes to be analyzed. In column chromatography, a mixture flows through the stationary phase. The compounds separate based on their structure and polarity. Solutes that interact weakly with the stationary phase move faster through the column and exit first. Solutes that...

dialysis

Dialysis Separation by Diffusion

Dialysis separates small molecules from larger ones by diffusion through a semipermeable membrane. It is a purification method used to remove unwanted ions or small organic molecules from a sample while keeping larger analytes in place. The membrane is usually made of cellulose acetate or cellulose nitrate. Its pores are typically about 1 to 5 nm wide. Molecules such as chloride, sodium, and glucose can pass through these pores. Larger molecules, including proteins, hormones, and enzymes, are...

volatilization

Mass Loss in Gravimetric Analysis

Volatilization gravimetry is a way to measure mass loss in a sample by driving off a volatile substance. It helps estimate how much volatile material is present. In this method, a known amount of sample is heated to a high temperature in a crucible or another suitable vessel. As the sample heats, the volatile substance evaporates. The vapor is then completely removed from the crucible, either by continued heating or by bubbling an inert gas through the vessel. The non-volatile part stays...

ion exchange

Ion Exchange Resins and Charged Molecules

Ion exchange chromatography separates charged molecules from a solution by swapping them with mobile, or active, ions on a stationary phase. It is used to separate ions, soften and deionize water, and purify solutions. The method depends on a solid column made of high-molecular-weight, chemically stable polymers that are crosslinked to make them porous and essentially insoluble. These polymers are functionalized with either acidic or basic groups. When acidic groups are present, the resin is a...

key terms and concepts

Learn how heat changes matter from solid to liquid to gas, why temperature stays constant during phase changes, and how melting, boiling, and condensation differ.

Heating and Cooling During Phase Changes | JoVE K12

analytical chemistry

JoVE Core Analytical Chemistry simplifies complex chemical principles by breaking them down into clear, engaging animations, making topics from SI Units to NMR spectroscopy more accessible and straightforward. Additionally, the scientist-in-action videos highlight the application of these concepts in real-world research conducted in laboratories globally.

Louisiana Student Standards for Science

High School

Matter And Its Interactions

HS-PS1-4

HS-PS1-5

Tennessee Academic Standards

Matter and Its Interactions

CHEM1.PS1.7

Alabama Course of Study Science

Earth and Space Science

Earth's Systems

9-12.ESS.2.7

9-12.ESS.2.7.a

Florida Department of Education

Physical Science

SC.912.P.8

SC.912.P.8.1

Georgia Standards of Excellence

SPS5.

Energy and Phase Transitions

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Energy Basics

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Internal Energy

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Quantifying Heat

Thermal Energy&#160;

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Enthalpy

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PS.Chm.7.2

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PS.Chm.7.3

Understand the relationship among pressure, temperature, volume, and phase.

Heating and Cooling During Phase Changes

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