Electrophysiological Methods for Measuring Photopigment Levels in Drosophila Photoreceptors

Summary

We present a protocol to electrophysiologically characterize bi-stable photopigments: (i) exploiting the charge displacements within the photopigment molecules following photon-absorption and their huge amount in the photoreceptors, and (ii) exploiting the absorption-spectra differences of rhodopsin and metarhodopsin photopigment states. These protocols are useful to screen for mutations affecting bi-stable photopigment systems. 

Abstract

The Drosophila G-protein-coupled photopigment rhodopsin (R) is composed of a protein (opsin) and a chromophore. The activation process of rhodopsin is initiated by photon absorption-inducing isomerization of the chromophore, promoting conformational changes of the opsin and resulting in a second dark-stable photopigment state (metarhodopsin, M). Investigation of this bi-stable photopigment using random mutagenesis requires simple and robust methods for screening mutant flies. Therefore, several methods for measuring reductions in functional photopigment levels have been designed. One such method exploits the charge displacements within the photopigment following photon absorption and the huge amounts of photopigment molecules expressed in the photoreceptors. This electrical signal, named the early receptor potential (or early receptor current), is measured by a variety of electrophysiological methods (e.g., electroretinogram and whole-cell recordings) and is linearly proportional to functional photopigment levels. The advantages of this method are the high signal-to-noise ratio, direct linear measurement of photopigment levels, and independence of phototransduction mechanisms downstream to rhodopsin or metarhodopsin activation. An additional electrophysiological method called prolonged depolarizing afterpotential (PDA) exploits the bi-stability of Drosophila photopigment and the absorption-spectral differences of fly R and M pigment states. The PDA is induced by intense blue light, converting saturating amounts of rhodopsin to metarhodopsin, resulting in the failure of light-response termination for an extended time in darkness, but it can be terminated by metarhodopsin to rhodopsin conversion using intense orange light. Since the PDA is a robust signal that requires massive photopigment conversion, even small defects in the biogenesis of the photopigment lead to readily detected abnormal PDA. Indeed, defective PDA mutants led to the identification of novel signaling proteins important for phototransduction.

Introduction

The light-activated rhodopsin (R), which is a G-protein-coupled receptor (GPCR), is composed of a 7 transmembrane protein (opsin) and a chromophore. In Drosophila melanogaster (fruit fly), photon absorption induces isomerization of the 11-cis-3-OH-retinal chromophore to all-trans-3-OH-retinal¹, promoting the conformational change of the rhodopsin to metarhodopsin (M, Figure 1A). Unlike vertebrate rhodopsin, the predominant fraction of invertebrate chromophore does not dissociate from the opsin, resulting in the physiologically active dark-stable pigment state M. In turn, add....

Protocol

1. Measuring the intensity response relationship, prolonged depolarizing afterpotential (PDA), and the early receptor potential (ERP) using the electroretinogram

1. Suitable rearing conditions for D. melanogaster preparation
   1. Raise D. melanogaster flies in bottles containing standard yellow corn containing food in an incubator maintained at a temperature of 24 °C and in a 12 h dark/light cycle
   2. Keep the fly bottles in the dark at least 24 h prior to the experiment.
2. General setup
   1. Prepare recording pipettes by pulling 1 mm x 0.58 mm (O.D x I.D) fiber-filled borosili....

Results

Figure 2 exemplifies the robustness and ease of using the ERG technique. It is robust because it is recorded in the virtually intact fly by a simple technique of extracellular voltage recordings that require a simple electrophysiological setup. The robustness is manifested by obtaining recordings of light responses with relatively large amplitudes (in the millivolt range) even when mutations strongly reduce or distort the light response. Therefore, even an inexperienced experimenter can use .......

Discussion

The major advantage of using the Drosophila photoreceptor preparation is its accessibility, the ease and accuracy of light stimulation, and, most importantly, the ability to apply the power of molecular genetics⁷. Extensive genetic studies have established Drosophila as an extremely useful model system for the genetic dissection of complex biological processes⁷. The relatively simple structure of the Drosophila genome (consisting of only four chro.......

Materials

List of materials used in this article

Name	Company	Catalog Number	Comments
1 mL syringe with elongated tip			Figure 6M
1 rough tweezers		Dumont #5, Standard	0.1 mm x 0.06 mm, length 110 mm, Inox (Figure 6H)
2 condenser lenses
A/D converter	Molecular Device	Digidata 1200	Possible replacement: any digidata from molecular devices (e.g 1440A) -Figure 7C
Amplifier	Almost perfect electronics		Possible replacement: Warner instruments- IE251A or IE-210 (comes with headstage)- Figure 7D
Anti-vibration Table	Newport	VW-3036-OPT-01	Figure 7H
Capillaries	Harvard Apparatus	Borosilicate glass capillaries	1 mm x 0.58 mm (Figure 6O)
Clampex	Molecular Device		Software
CO2 tank
Cold light source	Schott	KL1500 LCD	Figure 6C
Delicate wipers	Kimtech		Kimwipes (Figure 6K)
Electrode holder			Suitable for capillary O.D. 1 mm (Figure 6N, Figure 7N, and Figure 7P)
Faraday cage	Home made		Electromagnetic noise shielding and black front curtain (Figure 7K)
Filter (Color)	Schott	OG590, Edge filter	Figure 7S
Filter (Color)	Schott	BP450/40 nm	Figure 7S
Filter (Color)	Blazers	550 nm	Figure 7S
Filter (Color) for cold light source	Schott	RG630	Figure 6C
Filter (Heat)	Schott	KG3	Figure 7S
Filters (Neutral density filter)	Chroma	6,5,4,3,2,1,0.5,0.3	Figure 7S
Flash Lamp system	Honeywell		Figure 7U
Fly sleeper system with injector	Inject + matic		Figure 6A-B
Lamp power supply	PTI	LPS-220	Figure 7W
Light detector	Home made		Phototransistor (Figure 7O)
Light guide			3 mm diameter, 1.3 m long (Figure 7L,M)
Light source			High-pressure ozone-free 75 W Xenon lamp (operating on 50 W), possible replacement: Cairn research- OptoLED (Figure 7R)
Low temperature melting wax	Home made		Composed of mixture of beeswax (Tm≈62 °C) and paraffin at ~3:1 to reach a melting temperature of ~55–56 °C (Figure 6J)
Magnetic stand for flies	Home made		Figure 6I and Figure 7Q
Microelectrode preamplifier system with head-stage	Almost perfect electronics		Impedance tester (Figure 7G)
Micromanipulator (mechanical coarse)	Tritech Research, Narishige	M-2
Micromanipulator (mechanical fine)	Leitz Microsystems	Leitz Mechanical Micromanipulator	Figure 7F
pCLAMP	Molecular Device		Software
Petri dish			60 mm
Pulse generator	AMPI	Master 8	Figure 7A
Redux cream for electrocardiography	Parker Laboratories	Redux Electrolyte Crème
Shutter driver	Uniblitz, Vincent Associates	VCM-D1 Single Channel Uni-stable	Figure 7V
Shutter system	Uniblitz, Vincent Associates	LS2 2 mm Uni-stable Shutters	Figure 7V
Silver Wire	Warner Instruments		0.25–1 mm diameter, needs to be chloridized
Soldering iron composed of a platinum-iridium filament			0.25 mm diameter (Figure 6F)
Stereoscopic zoom Microscope	Nikon	SMZ-2B	Figure 6D
Stereoscopic zoom Microscope	Wild	Wild M5	With 6, 12, 25 and 50 magnification settings (Figure 7E)
Syringe filters	Millex		22 µm PVDF filter
Vertical pipette puller	Sutter/ Narishige	Model P-97/PP-830	Use either vertical or horizontal puller, as preferred (Figure 6L)
Wax filament heater	Home made		See figure S1 (Figure 6E-G)
Xenon Flash Lamp system	Dr. Rapp OptoElectronic	JML-C2	Figure 7X