Chapter 4

Biochemistry of the Cell

The human body is composed of cells that are fundamentally made up of several different molecules. These molecules are essential to carry out all…

Water is the one of the most significant components of the human body; it plays a crucial role in several physiological activities because of its…

In humans, electrolytes play a vital role in various physiological processes. Balancing electrolyte levels is essential for normal body functions;…

Acid-base homeostasis is essential for maintaining normal physiological activities in humans. The pH of various body fluids is strictly regulated…

Functional groups are a group of atoms with characteristic properties, which when linked to the carbon skeleton of a molecule, alter the properties…

Carbohydrates, proteins, and fats are the primary macronutrients in the human diet. However, carbohydrates are the most favored source of energy in…

Carbohydrates are polymers composed of molecules containing atoms of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. One gram of carbohydrate can provide four…

Sugar (a simple carbohydrate) metabolism (chemical reactions) is a classic example of the many cellular processes that use and produce energy. Living…

Lipids function as structural components of cellular membranes, in addition to acting as energy reservoirs and signaling molecules. They are thus…

Fats and lipids are crucial components in the human body. Some lipid-derived compounds, such as fat-soluble vitamins, eicosanoids, lipoproteins, and…

Triglycerides are a form of long-term energy storage molecules. They are made of glycerol and three fatty acids. To obtain energy from fat,…

Proteins are polymers of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds. Proteins and polypeptides are interchangeably used to refer to long chains of…

Proteins are polymers of amino acid residues. They are versatile and responsible for different cellular functions, including DNA replication,…

In organisms, proteins are the most abundant macromolecules. They act as the building blocks of life and play various crucial roles in the body.…

Fibrous proteins are either long and narrow proteins or assemble to form long and thin structures. They contain repetitive units and usually consist…

The function of proteins depends on their native three-dimensional structure, which is dictated by the amino acid sequence of the specific protein.…

Proteins are the building block of life. They are also  the most abundant macromolecules with as many diverse roles in the body. They are part…

The use of enzymes by humans dates to 7000 BCE. Humans first used enzymes to ferment sugars and produce alcohol without knowing that this was an…

The activation energy (or free energy of activation), abbreviated as Ea, is the small amount of energy input necessary for all chemical reactions to…

For many years, scientists thought that enzyme-substrate binding took place in a simple "lock-and-key" fashion. This model stated that the…

Nucleic acids are the most important macromolecules for the continuity of life. They carry the cell's genetic blueprint and have instructions for…

The pentose sugar in DNA is deoxyribose, while in RNA the pentose sugar is ribose. The difference between the sugars is the presence of the hydroxyl…

ATP is a highly unstable molecule. Unless quickly used to perform work, ATP spontaneously dissociates into ADP and inorganic phosphate (Pi), and the…

Glycogen is synthesized as a storage form of glucose by a wide array of organisms, ranging from bacteria to animals. The molecule comprises linear…

Dietary lipids are taken up as free fatty acids (FAs) by the intestinal epithelium. These FAs are intracellularly converted into triglyceride (TG)…

Understanding how enzymes work, and relating this to real life examples, is critical to a wide range of undergraduate degrees in the biological and…