Neuroscience

Neurophysiology studies how the nervous system works by tracking electrical activity in neurons and in the brain. It looks at the central and peripheral nervous systems at many levels, including whole organs, cell networks, single cells, and even subcellular parts. This field helps explain how nerve signals support thought and how nervous system problems can be diagnosed and treated.

The history of neurophysiology includes landmark studies that shaped the field. One early example is Galvani’s...

Patch clamp recording lets neuroscientists measure ion channel activity in neuron cell membranes. These channels control the movement of charge into and out of the cell, which helps regulate neuron firing.

The technique uses a polished glass micropipette placed against a cell. Gentle suction forms a high-resistance seal and isolates a small patch of membrane that contains one or more ion channels. An electrode inside the micropipette then clamps the membrane’s electrical properties so...

Calcium dyes let scientists visualize neuron activity by tracking calcium ions inside living cells. Calcium acts as an intracellular signal in neurons and can trigger changes in gene expression and the release of neurotransmitters from synaptic vesicles. Because calcium levels shift quickly, this imaging method shows how calcium signaling changes over time.

The technique uses calcium indicator dyes, which are designed to respond to calcium concentration. The commonly used dye Fura-2 is...

Neuroanatomy studies the structures of the nervous system and how those structures connect to function. It looks at large features in the central and peripheral nervous systems, such as the folds on the surface of the brain. It also examines the smaller relationships between neurons and glia, the two main cell types in the nervous system.

The field of neuroanatomy has a long history. Its roots go back to the 4th century BC, when philosophers first suggested that the soul may reside in the...

Stereotaxic surgery is a method used to target the brain of living animals with precision. Researchers use it to reach deep brain structures by following coordinates from a stereotaxic atlas. The atlas gives three-dimensional positions for each area based on landmarks on the skull.

The procedure begins after the skull is exposed. The anesthetized animal is placed in a stereotaxic frame, a special device that holds the head steady. This setup lets scientists position tools at the exact...

Brain stains are used to make neural tissue easier to study under the microscope. Histological staining helps researchers examine the cellular, structural, and molecular layout of tissues and organs. For neural tissue, the method begins with preservation by chemical fixatives and then cuts the sample into very thin slices. Stains are added afterward to create contrast in tissue sections that would otherwise look visually uniform.

The page highlights common stains used in neuroanatomy. Nissl...

Behavioral neuroscience studies how the nervous system shapes behavior and how brain regions and networks relate to specific behaviors and disease states. It looks at neural correlates, which are brain areas whose activity is linked to a function. The field also uses many kinds of experiments to connect brain activity with behavior.

The topic begins with key milestones that helped scientists understand how the brain controls behavior. It then turns to the main questions behavioral...

The Morris water maze is a behavioral test used to study spatial learning and memory in rodents. In this task, the animal swims in a pool and looks for a platform that lets it escape the water. Later, the platform is hidden below the water surface, so the rodent must remember where it was to find it again.

This maze is a simple but powerful way to measure cognitive function. Researchers use it to study animal models of neurodegenerative disease and to test possible drug therapies. It can also...

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) maps brain activity by tracking changes in blood flow during a task. It is a non-invasive neuroimaging method used to study human brain function and cognition in both healthy people and people with abnormal brain states.

fMRI works through the magnetic resonance signal and the blood oxygen level dependent, or BOLD, effect. Hemoglobin has different magnetic properties depending on whether it is carrying oxygen. When a person performs a task,...

Cellular and molecular neuroscience studies how genes, signaling molecules, and cell shape influence neurons and the brain. It helps researchers understand normal brain development and function, as well as the causes of many diseases and disorders.

The field has grown quickly, and its history includes major milestones. The timeline in this video reaches from the discovery of DNA in 1953 to later breakthroughs such as the cloning of ion channels. These advances helped build the modern study of...

Growing neurons in a lab dish gives scientists a simpler way to study the brain. A primary culture is made by taking nervous system tissue, breaking it into single cells, and growing those cells in vitro, or outside the body in a controlled dish.

This setup makes neurons and glia, the support cells of the nervous system, easier to reach with research tools. It also creates a controlled environment for studying cell-cell interactions and for using methods such as genetic manipulation and...

Neurons can be genetically modified by transfection, a process that transfers genetic material into cells. Scientists use this approach to quickly change gene expression in neurons. It can silence a specific protein or drive cells to make a foreign or modified protein.

Mature neurons are difficult to transfect because of their cell properties. For that reason, special methods are needed for genetic manipulation in this cell type. The video explains the principles behind these approaches and...

Embryonic brain tissue can be grown in culture to help scientists study how the nervous system develops. This approach lets researchers follow cell differentiation, cell migration, and changes in cell shape while the tissue stays in an organotypic state. Organotypic means the tissue is removed from the body, but its normal cellular structure is kept.

Neural tissue is hard to work with in embryonic mammals because it is not easy to access for experiments. Explant culture helps solve this...

In utero electroporation is a method for delivering genetic material into mouse embryos while they are still developing in the uterus. It uses brief electrical pulses to open temporary pores in cell membranes. This lets researchers place material into cells in a targeted way and study neural development.

The technique helps scientists follow key steps in brain formation, including cell proliferation, differentiation, migration, and maturation. It also extends electroporation beyond traditional...

Developmental neuroscience studies how the nervous system forms, from early embryonic stages through adulthood. It follows neural progenitor cells, which are early cells that can give rise to nervous system tissue, as they move through proliferation, differentiation, migration, and maturation. The steps are known, but the mechanisms that control progress through each stage are still not fully understood.

This field helps explain how complex nervous system structures are built. It also supports...