Immunology

Flow cytometry and FACS can be used to separate B lymphocytes from a mixed spleen cell sample. The immune system protects the body from infectious organisms and other invaders. White blood cells, also called leukocytes, are the main cells involved in this defense.

Leukocytes can be grouped into subpopulations such as myeloid cells, lymphocytes, and dendritic cells. These groups can be distinguished by biological, physical, and functional features. Cell size, granularity, and secretion are...

Thymic T cell enrichment with magnetic sorting helps isolate a targeted immune cell group from a mixed sample. The immune system relies on many cell types, and lymphocytes are a major part of adaptive immunity. B cells usually respond to extracellular infections, such as bacterial infections, while T cells usually respond to intracellular infections, such as viral infections.

Magnetic sorting enriches selected cells by using magnetic beads and antibodies against cell surface proteins. First,...

ELISA methods detect antigens, antibodies, proteins, hormones, peptides, and other biomolecules in biological samples. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay is highly sensitive because it can detect very low antigen levels. It works by using an antigen-antibody interaction, then an enzyme-linked antibody turns a colorless substrate into a colored or fluorescent signal that a plate reader can measure.

Different ELISA formats are used for different sample types and antibody setups. Indirect ELISA is...

ELISPOT is a sensitive assay for detecting immune cells that release a specific protein. It is based on an ELISA, or enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, but it shows single-cell responses as visible spots. The method was first described in 1983 by Czerkinsky to count B cell hybridomas that produce antigen-specific immunoglobulins.

The assay was later adapted to measure cytokine-producing T lymphocytes. Because of that, ELISPOT is now a gold standard for measuring antigen-specific T cell...

Antibody staining of tissue and cells lets scientists see where a specific antigen is located. Immunohistochemistry, or IHC, uses thin tissue sections. Immunocytochemistry, or ICC, uses isolated cells or cells grown in culture. Both methods rely on antibodies that carry a chemical or fluorescent tag, such as peroxidase or rhodamine, so the target antigen can be detected under a light microscope.

IHC keeps the structure of the whole tissue in place while the sample is stained. That makes it...

Hybridoma cell culture is used to produce monoclonal antibodies, or mAbs, with a known antigen specificity. Monoclonal antibodies come from a single clone of cells, so they recognize one target more precisely than polyclonal antibodies, which are a mixed group of antibodies against different antigenic determinants. That difference matters when similar molecules share epitopes, or antigen sites, that can confuse an antibody test.

Polyclonal antisera can react with more than one related antigen.

Fluorescent antibody staining lets scientists see specific proteins in thin tissue sections on glass slides. It is used to study normal tissue structure and to better understand how disease works. In many cases, the tissue comes from patient biopsies or from experimental in vivo models.

The tissue is usually fixed in formalin or paraformaldehyde and embedded in paraffin wax before it is cut. This preservation method supports long-term storage and makes sectioning possible. A microtome is used...

Confocal fluorescence microscopy is used to show where proteins are located inside cells with better detail than wide-field epifluorescence microscopy. It improves image clarity by scanning the sample with lasers and using a pinhole to block out-of-focus light. This makes it easier to see whether a signal comes from the cell surface or from inside the cell.

The method relies on fluorescence, which happens when a molecule absorbs light and then gives off a new photon. A fluorophore is a...

Immunoprecipitation uses antibodies and Protein A/G agarose beads to isolate a specific protein from a cell lysate. It is also called a pull-down assay. The term "immuno" refers to the antibody, and "precipitation" means pulling a substance out of solution.

The target protein can be endogenous or recombinant. Recombinant proteins often carry epitope tags such as myc or flag, which makes purification easier because antibodies against these tags are usually strong and effective. Antibodies...

Tracking T cell division with CFSE and flow cytometry shows how immune cells respond after stimulation. The cell cycle is a normal process of life. During it, a cell changes step by step and divides into two daughter cells. This happens throughout life when the body needs new cells for growth and repair.

Cells that are not cycling are in the G0 phase, which means they are quiet. Once a cell enters the cycle, it moves through G1, S, G2, and M phases. G1 is a checkpoint for the resources needed...

Adoptive cell transfer is a method for moving cells into a host animal to study biology or help treat disease. Researchers can use it to follow cell movement and distribution, or to test how transferred cells behave in a mouse model. Tracking systems such as cell surface markers and CFSE staining can help show where the cells go after transfer.

This approach has several uses in mouse studies. It can support cancer research by transferring specific cell populations as an experimental treatment...

The chromium release assay measures how well immune cells kill target cells in the lab. It is used to test the cytotoxic ability of T cells, NK cells, and other effector cells against infected cells or tumor cells.

This assay works by labeling target cells with chromium-51, a radioactive tracer called Na2 51CrO4. The label quickly marks cellular proteins inside the target cells. When effector cells damage the target-cell membrane, the labeled proteins are released into the culture supernatant...