方法文章

优化内切肽酶晶体生长以用于序列晶体学实验

DOI:

10.3791/61896

2021年2月4日

本文内容

摘要

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本文的目的是使读者充分理解如何将小体积蒸气扩散法用于生长大尺寸单晶蛋白晶体的实验方案,转变为适用于序列晶体学的大体积批量微晶结晶方法。

摘要

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本文介绍了一种用于制备大体积(> 100 µL)微晶悬浮液的实验方案,适用于同步辐射光源和X射线自由电子激光装置(XFELs)上的序列晶体学实验。该方法基于对蛋白质晶体相图的理解,并充分利用这一知识指导实验设计。整个方法分为三个阶段:(1)优化晶体形貌,(2)转为批量培养,(3)放大规模。第一阶段的目标是获得衍射质量良好、单一的晶体,理想情况下呈现近似立方体的形态,但并非必须如此。在第二阶段中,通过优化晶体生长时间来改进第一阶段所确定的条件,该策略可将原本通过蒸气扩散法生长的晶体转为批量培养模式。当晶体能够在约24小时内完成生长后,即可绘制该蛋白质与沉淀剂混合体系的形态图谱(morphogram),并以此为基础制定第三阶段的放大策略。一旦实现批量培养,即可尝试扩大反应体积,同时优化晶体的尺寸和浓度。本方案以Endothiapepsin作为示范蛋白进行说明。部分决策针对Endothiapepsin的具体特性而定,但希望其所体现的思路能够启发研究者将其方法论灵活应用于各自的科研项目中。

引言

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室温(RT)大分子晶体学在结构生物学领域再次受到关注。X射线自由电子激光(XFEL)光源的发展推动了室温样品输送技术的进步1,2,3,4,这些方法现已应用于同步辐射光源5,6,7,8。室温方法不仅为泵浦-探测实验策略提供了可能9,10,11,12,而且越来越多的证据表明,它们还能促进蛋白质内部产生不同的构象状态13,14,15,16,17

然而,冷冻方法在20世纪90年代末期相较于室温方法获得广泛采用的主要原因,是低温晶体环境显著减缓了辐射损伤18。冷冻方法19开始使得从单个蛋白质晶体即可收集完整的衍射数据集成为可能。现代在X射线自由电子激光装置(XFELs)和同步辐射光源上发展的室温方法,则通过开发快速(> 100 Hz)晶体输送策略,解决了单晶辐射损伤的问题1,2,3,4。这些方法使得可以从数千个独立曝光的晶体中收集完整的数据集。因此,这类室温输送方法需要制备大量含有均一微晶的溶液(> 100 µL,晶体尺寸< 50 µm)。然而,由于冷冻方法通常仅需单个晶体,目前在蛋白质晶体学实验室中,制备此类微晶悬液的方法尚未普及。

文献中已有部分关于微晶优化流程在序列晶体学样品中应用的实例。此处应区分膜蛋白与可溶性蛋白。针对在单油酸甘油酯(或其它脂质)中生长的微膜蛋白晶体(用于脂质立方相(LCP))的优化方案已有较为详尽的描述20,21,22。然而,针对可溶性蛋白的微结晶方法,包括在非LCP条件下生长的膜蛋白,总体上仍显不足。以往的研究多集中于该过程的特定环节,例如微晶筛选23,24、促进成核24以及利用自由界面扩散进行放大培养25,但尚未建立完整的方法体系。

然而,最近有研究描述了一种尝试提供完整实验方案的方法26。与蛋白质晶体学的许多方面一样,该方法并非全新,其中提出的许多理念此前已被 Rayment(2002 年)阐述过27。该方法旨在指导晶体学家如何将一种通过蒸气扩散法生长的单晶,转化为批量方法以生长数千个微晶。该方法以蒸气扩散法作为常见的起始点,因为蛋白质数据库(PDB)中 95% 的晶体结构数据均来源于蒸气扩散板中生长的晶体26。然而,蒸气扩散法并非微晶化的理想方法26,因此文中描述了一种将其转化为批量结晶的方法。一旦能够在批量条件下生长晶体,扩大反应体积的规模化路径便更具可行性。鉴于蛋白质结晶过程的不确定性,作者强调该方法并非万无一失。但该实验方案至少应能提供对蛋白质“结晶空间”的深入理解。

该方法依赖于蛋白质结晶相图,以及对相图的理解如何在微结晶优化过程中起到指导作用。蛋白质相图通常被描绘为一个 x/y 沉淀剂和蛋白质浓度的图 xy 轴,分别(图1A)。从纯水点(左下角 - 图1A),蛋白质和沉淀剂的浓度不断上升,直至达到溶解度线。溶解度线标志着过饱和点(紫色线 - 图1A当蛋白质处于过饱和状态时,溶液在热力学上变得不稳定,将开始分离成两相:“富含蛋白质”相和稳定的饱和溶液相。这种分离可发生在溶解度曲线之外的任何区域,其动力学过程取决于蛋白质的性质及溶液组分的特性。

当蛋白质和沉淀剂浓度过高时,蛋白质会不稳定地从溶液中析出,形成无定形沉淀(粉红色区域——图1A)。然而,在成核区可能发生有序的相分离[详见Garcia-Ruiz(2003)28的详细描述],并倾向于形成晶体成核中心(绿色区域——图1A)。成核与生长过程会将蛋白质从溶液中移除,使液滴进入亚稳态区,在此区域内晶体可继续生长,直至达到溶解度线[详见McPherson和Kuznetsov(2014)29的详细讨论]。对于绝大多数结晶条件而言,该相图是一种高度简化的表示方法30。尽管如此,该图对于微晶结晶研究者仍具有重要实用价值,因为通过绘制该相图可确定溶解度线以及成核动力学参数。

在制备微晶时,结晶过程中需要优化的两个因素是晶体数量(Xn)及其平均最长尺寸(Xs)。Xn 与成核事件的次数(n)成正比(公式1)。

正比关系公式 Xₙ ∝ n,数学表达式,教学示意图。     公式 1

Xs 与溶解度线以上游离蛋白的浓度(Ps)除以 Xn 成正比(公式 2)。

比例关系公式;方程;科学分析;变量比较;比值。     方程 2

在理想情况下,每一次成核事件都会产生一个可能的晶体,且每一个这样的晶体都能均等地接触溶液中可利用的蛋白质。图2 是Xn与Xs之间关系在理想情况下的图示。实际上,晶体学家对Xn和Xs的主要控制手段是通过影响成核数量或添加晶种晶体来实现的。微晶晶体学家必须判断如何提高Xn,以便同时获得合适的晶体浓度和晶体尺寸。

大多数结晶技术都需要一个“过渡期”(图1B)。例如,在蒸气扩散实验中,当蛋白质溶液与沉淀剂溶液混合后,随着液滴与储液池溶液达到平衡,各组分的浓度会发生变化。理想情况下,这些变化将逐步使液滴进入成核区,从而提高结晶倾向。当晶体开始成核并生长时,溶液中的蛋白质含量会逐渐下降,从而降低进一步成核的概率。最终的成核数量取决于具体的蛋白质和实验条件,同时也与进入成核区的深度有关。由于需要过渡步骤的方法在进入成核区时穿透程度有限,因此成核水平最终受限于亚稳态-成核区边界的成核速率。

由于增强微晶结晶过程中成核水平至关重要,因此有必要转向批量结晶方法。批量法能够更充分地利用整个成核区域(图1C)。在批量法中,其原理是将蛋白质与沉淀剂混合,形成过饱和溶液,而无需改变组分浓度。混合后应可立即发生成核。因此,理论上批量法可达到整个成核区,任何超出亚稳态-成核边界范围的成核动力学提升均可被利用。

如果基础水平的晶体成核不足以产生大量的Xn,则可采用微晶接种法。在微晶接种中,预先培养的晶体被破碎,形成含有晶体碎片的悬浊液,这些碎片可作为新晶体生长的支架31,32。微晶接种已被广泛应用于序列晶体学样品制备中,以在无需增加晶体成核的情况下提高Xn图1C)。

从气相扩散法转变为批量法的过程可以在相图上表示为将实验起始点从非过饱和区或亚稳区移至成核区。这可以通过增加液滴中蛋白质和/或沉淀剂的浓度,和/或两者之间的比例(图1D),并观察哪些条件下晶体迅速出现(< 24 小时)来实现26。完成气相扩散液滴平衡可能需要数天甚至数周时间33。因此,通过寻找能够快速生成晶体的条件,即可在无需转向其他结晶筛选模式(如微批量法34,35,36,37)的情况下确定批量法的条件。

一旦找到成核区域,即可确定批量结晶条件,并构建一个形态图——此处为粗略的相图。该形态图在决定采用接种批量法还是直接批量法时具有重要参考价值。通过绘制成核数(Xn)随蛋白质浓度和沉淀剂浓度变化的曲线,可评估成核动力学26。如果在整个成核区域内Xn始终较低,则可能需要采用接种批量法,以使Xn足够大,从而限制晶体生长。这一评估是向更大体积(> 100 µL)放大过程的第一步。

该方法的设计使得大多数结晶实验室均可使用标准的蒸气扩散结晶设备来完成。若具备相应设备,已有许多研究描述了可促进该过程各个步骤的技术。这些技术包括但不限于动态光散射(DLS)25,27、非线性成像20,24,25、粉末衍射20,24,27以及电子显微镜技术26[参见 Cheng 等人(2020)40 的综述文章以了解详细内容]。

本研究的目的是提供一种从微小体积(< 500 nL)蒸气扩散结晶法过渡到大体积(> 100 µL)批量结晶法的可视化演示。以柑橘寄生菌(Cryphonectria parasitica)来源的内切天冬氨酸蛋白酶作为示例体系,展示该转化过程。所需微晶所用于的实验类型及样品递送方式将影响理想的 Xs 输出结果26。对于需要毫秒级时间分辨率的混合实验41 或使用气动虚拟喷嘴的实验42,最终 Xs 小于 < 5 µm 可能更为理想。本实验的目标是制备可用于光子激发泵浦-探测实验且采用固定靶递送方式、衍射分辨率约为 1.5 Å 的蛋白质晶体。

为了说明使用内切蛋白酶进行此类序列晶体学实验的样品需求,表1列出了一个假设实验的实验参数。样品信息基于下文所述的实验方案。根据对命中率和数据收集需求的一些保守估计,整个实验的总样品消耗量预计为50 mg。

图3展示了一个完整的优化流程图,从初始的小体积蒸汽扩散结晶过渡到大规模批量结晶。对于大多数序列晶体学项目,该方案将从第2步“过渡到批量结晶”开始,因为目标蛋白通常已经完成结晶。然而,第1步仍被包含在内以保证流程完整性,并提醒读者其重要性。找到能够产生衍射质量良好、单一且较大的晶体的条件,是微晶优化的最佳起点。在第2步中,可将该条件从蒸汽扩散法优化为批量法,并绘制出成核区与亚稳区的形态图(morphogram)。完成此步骤后,可在第3步中将批量条件放大至更大体积。在流程图结束时,晶体学家将建立一个可重复的、大体积(> 100 µL)的内切蛋白酶微晶批量结晶方案。该方法随后可应用于其特定的目标蛋白。

方案

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NOTE: All 96-well sitting-drop crystallization experiments were setup using either 2 or 3-drop plates. A liquid handling robot and a crystallization imager/hotel were used to facilitate the preparation and monitoring of all 96-well screens. All reagent concentrations for crystallization experiments are given at their starting concentrations prior to mixing.

1. Optimizing crystal morphology

NOTE: Steps 1.1.1. and 1.1.6. describe how endothiapepsin crystallization conditions were found, and how these conditions were optimized to find a single condition that yielded single, well-diffracting crystals.

  1. Sparse-matrix optimization
    1. Prepare fresh endothiapepsin solution.
      ​NOTE: Endothiapepsin, when procured as Superan 600, must be buffer transferred out of its storage solution and concentrated.
      1. Prepare 3 L of 0.1 M Na Acetate pH 4.6 at 4 °C.
      2. Cut 20 cm of dialysis tubing and briefly wash in the buffer. Seal one end of the tubing using a clip, place 50 mL of the endothiapepsin solution into the tubing and then seal the other end.
      3. Leave the solution to dialyze for at least 4 h (or overnight) at 4 °C in 1 L of the Na Acetate buffer. Due to the components of the storage buffer, the solution in the dialysis bag will now be approximately 100 mL.
      4. Transfer the dialysis bag containing the endothiapepsin into a fresh liter of 4 °C, 0.1 M Na Acetate pH 4.6. Repeat this step once more such that the original buffer has been diluted 2000x against the Na Acetate.
      5. The endothiapepsin will now be at approximately 10 mg/mL. Concentrate to 100 mg/mL using a 10 kDa centrifugal concentrator and a centrifuge.
      6. Flash cool the endothiapepsin solution in liquid nitrogen in 50 µL aliquots and store at -80 °C.
    2. Prepare a PACT Premier 96-well sparse-matrix screen.
      1. Using a liquid handling robot, dispense 100 nL of 70 mg/mL endothiapepsin and 100 nL of well solution into a single sub-well per well. Mix the protein and well solution 3 times upon addition of the crystallization buffer.
      2. Seal the plate and leave for 28 days at 20 °C taking images every day for the first week and then every week thereafter for 4 weeks.
    3. Sparse-matrix analysis
      1. Identify hits that produce single endothiapepsin crystals. From the PACT screen, conditions that contained MgCl2 grew as singletons rather than needle clusters.
    4. Sparse-matrix optimization
      1. From the MgCl2 containing conditions identified in Step 1.1.3.1, create a 96-well screen randomly combining and varying the different well components.
      2. Using a liquid handling robot, dispense 100 nL of 70 mg/mL endothiapepsin and 100 nL of well solution into a single sub-well per well. Mix the protein and well solution 3 times upon addition of the crystallization buffer.
      3. Seal the plate and leave for 28 days at 20 °C taking images every day for the first week and then every week thereafter for 4 weeks.
    5. Optimization analysis
      1. Using suitable spreadsheet software, rank the crystallization conditions that give rise to crystals based on the crystal quality and precipitation level, no crystals (0) to ideal (5) and low (0) to high (5), respectively. With respect to crystal quality, the broad criteria are single crystals with a box-like morphology.
      2. Perform a Pearson's correlation analysis between the crystallization condition contents and the crystal quantity and precipitation level.
      3. Plot these data as a heat map. Look for components and conditions that were correlated with the preferred outcomes.
    6. Diffraction analysis.
      1. Confirm that the crystals grown from the identified conditions in Step 1.1.5 are suitable for serial crystallography by performing an X-ray diffraction experiment.
      2. Load a sample of the endothiapepsin crystals from each of the identified conditions onto supports that allow for data collection at either 100 or 293 K and perform an X-ray diffraction experiment. If working under cryo, use 25% ethylene glycol as the cryo-protectant.
      3. Process these data via a suitable software suite. Endothiapepsin crystals should diffract to beyond 1.5 Å. Check for twinning, as twinned crystals can significantly complicate serial crystallographic data processing.
      4. If crystals are singletons and diffract to 1.5 Å proceed to Step 2. If not, go back to Step 1.1.2 and try more sparse-matrix screens to identify promising conditions. After the analyses conducted in Steps 1.1.5. and 1.1.6., a crystallization condition of 25% (w/v) PEG 6,000, 0.1 M Tris-HCl pH 7.0 and 0.15 M MgCl2 should have been found as the approximate ideal.

2. Transitioning to batch

  1. Morphogram experiment
    1. Create a micro-crystal seed stock.
      ​NOTE: It is best practice when making seed-stocks, to make the seeds from crystals specifically grown for the task. This greatly helps with reproducibility. Other ideas presented in Steps 2.1.1.1 to 2.1.1.11 are to always use the crystals grown from a standard number of wells - here 5 - and aliquot the stocks once they are made to negate freeze-thaw cycles.
      1. Prepare a 96-well crystallization plate with wells containing the crystallization buffer: 25% (w/v) PEG 6,000, 0.1 M Tris-HCl pH 7.0 and 0.15 M MgCl2.
      2. Using a liquid handling robot, dispense 200 nL of defrosted 70 mg/mL endothiapepsin and 200 nL of well solution into a single sub-well per well. Mix the protein and well solution 3 times upon addition of the crystallization buffer.
      3. Seal the plate and leave for 24 h.
      4. Fill a 1.5 mL centrifuge tube with 250 µL of crystallization buffer and 10-15 1 mm glass beads. Leave the centrifuge tube on ice to cool for 5-10 min.
      5. Select 5 wells with crystals, open the wells with a scalpel and, using a pipette tip, crush the crystals in the wells.
      6. Aspirate 1 µL of buffer from the iced centrifuge tube and use to homogenize the crushed crystal slurry. Once homogeneous, aspirate the entire slurry and collect in the cooled centrifuge tube.
      7. Repeat Step 2.1.2.6 for each of the 5 sub-wells.
      8. Vortex the centrifuge tube containing the buffer, pooled slurries and beads at 1000 rpm for 30 s.
      9. Return the centrifuge tube to ice for 30 s.
      10. Repeat Steps 2.1.2.8 and 2.1.2.9 two more times.
      11. The seed-stock is now ready and can be aliquoted into 10 µL batches and stored at -20 °C.
    2. Perform morphogram experiment.
      1. Prepare a 2-drop 96-well grid screen. Vary the concentration of PEG 6,000 from 5 to 40% (w/v) along the plate columns, keeping the buffer and salt at 0.1 M Tris-HCl pH 7.0 and 0.15 M MgCl2, respectively.
      2. Prepare a sequential dilution of endothiapepsin in 0.1 M Na Acetate pH 4.6 from 100 to 12.5 mg/mL over 8 steps. A different concentration of endothiapepsin will be used for each row of the plate.
      3. Using a liquid handling robot, dispense 150 nL of endothiapepsin into both sub-wells 1 and 2. In sub-well 1, dispense 150 nL of the well solution. In sub-well 2, multi-aspirate 50 nL of defrosted seed-stock and 100 nL of well solution, and then dispense both into the protein solution. Mix the solutions 3 times upon addition of the crystallization buffer.
      4. Seal the plate and leave at 20 °C taking images every 0, 3, 6, 12, 18, 24 h, then every day for the first week, and every week for the next four. If automatic imaging is not possible, do not worry about the hourly imaging on day 1.
  2. Morphogram analysis
    1. Looking at the images taken after 24 h, estimate the number of crystals that are present in each well and record these estimates in the "morphogram generator" worksheet provided. These estimates do not have to be precise; individually counting thousands of micro-crystals, if present, is not practical or necessary. Principally try to ensure the estimates are consistent over the whole plate.
      ​NOTE: The 24 h rule was based upon the observations made in Beale et al. (2019)26. Vapor diffusion crystallization conditions can take days or weeks to equilibrate. Crystals that appear rapidly are more likely to have grown via a batch process rather than by the gradual equilibration of the drop components. The 24 h criterion is, therefore, somewhat arbitrary and an exact cut-off time between a batch and vapor diffusion experiment will depend on the specific mixture of the condition [see Beale et al. (2019)26 for full details].
    2. Input the starting concentrations of endothiapepsin and PEG 6,000 in the boxes indicated.
    3. The worksheet will automatically plot the results in the traditional phase diagram format with precipitant and protein concentration on the x and y axes, respectively. Well conditions that only give rise to crystals in their seeded drops indicate the metastable region of the diagram (transparent blue), whereas conditions that have crystals in both the seeded and non-seeded drops indicate the nucleation zone (solid green).
      ​NOTE: Ideally, the majority of the nucleation zone should be present on the diagram (i.e., there are some clear wells on the bottom of the diagram and some precipitate should be visible at high protein and precipitant concentrations). If this is not the case, perhaps, repeat the experiment but increase the protein and/or precipitant concentration (if possible).
    4. If crystal have appeared in less than 24 h, proceed to Step 2.3.1. If not, proceed to Step 2.4 and continue optimizing towards batch.
  3. Crystal analysis
    1. As said at the end of Step 1, before moving to the next step, ensure these crystals have the desired morphology and diffraction quality. With regard to morphology, are the crystals observably untwinned and forming as singletons rather than needle-ball-like or fan-like structures? With regard to diffraction, collect diffraction data from the crystals if possible. If these crystals do not diffract, it is improbable that the crystals grown in a larger volume will diffract.
    2. Load a sample of the endothiapepsin crystals from the morphogram experiment onto supports that allow for data collection at either 100 or 293 K and perform an X-ray diffraction experiment. If working under cryo, use 25% ethylene glycol as the cryo-protectant.
    3. Process these data via a suitable software suite. Endothiapepsin crystals should diffract to beyond 1.5 Å. Across the sample of crystals, observe the cell size, the total number of observations, and the mosaicity; these measures will give an indication as to the homogeneity of the diffracting crystals.
    4. If the crystal morphology and diffraction quality is sufficient, proceed to Step 3.
  4. Optimize crystal growth time.
    NOTE: The morphogram analysis (Step 2.2) will have given an indication of the crystallization starting point (i.e., the region of the phase diagram where the drop is located when the precipitant and protein solutions were mixed). Is the drop in the metastable region or below the solubility line? Batch crystallization begins in the nucleation zone (Figure 1C). The goal of this step is to move this starting point from either below the solubility line or metastable region, into the nucleation zone (Figure 1D). If the seeded-drops from Step 2.2. have yielded crystals rapidly, this is an indication that the drop mixture is already in the metastable region, if not, then it is likely the drop is not supersaturated.
    1. Optimizing crystal growth time.
      1. Using the same screen as in Step 2.1.3, prepare a 96-well vapor diffusion crystallization experiment in a 3-drop plate.
      2. Increase the starting protein concentration of endothiapepsin on the y axis (i.e., concentrate the protein further, perhaps 120 mg/mL for endothiapepsin).
      3. Perform a serial dilution, as in Step 2.1.3.2, such that each row of the plate contains a sequentially lower protein concentration.
      4. Use different drop ratios in each of the three drops on the plate: 1:1, 1:2, and 2:1, protein:precipitant.
      5. View or image the plate on the first day at 0, 3, 6, 12, 18, 24 h and then every day for the first week, and every week for the next four. If automatic imaging is not possible, do not worry about the hourly imaging on day 1.
      6. Identify drops that produce the most rapidly appearing crystals and makes these the starting points of repeated optimizations until crystal growth occurs within 24 h.
      7. When a rapidly appearing crystal-condition has been identified return to Step 2.1 to replot the morphogram as a prelude to begin scaling.

3. Scaling

  1. Rank scaling routes. At this stage, it is not necessary to decide on a single scaling route, only to identify and rank the options so that they can be explored in turn. As the volume of the batch mixture is increased during the scaling procedure, changes will occur in the rate of nucleation and the range of crystal sizes. However, these can be overcome by careful tweaking of component concentrations as the scaled volume is increased.
    ​NOTE: Steps 3.1.1 and 3.1.2 describe how to discern, from the morphogram, whether a batch or seeded-batch protocol is more appropriate.
    1. Straight batch protocol
      1. Is the Xn in the nucleation zone proportional to the protein and/or precipitant concentration? I.e. does Xn increase as a function of either precipitant and/or protein concentration? - Yes? Go to Step 3.1.1.2. No? Go to Step 3.1.2.
      2. Locate conditions that yield crystals of the required size and go to Step 3.2.
    2. Seeded-batch protocol
      1. Is the Xn flat across the nucleation zone? I.e., Xn does not increase as a function of either precipitant and/or protein concentration.
      2. Locate seeded conditions that yield crystals of the required size and go to Step 3.2. If all crystals are too large - go to Step 3.1.2.3.
      3. Repeat the morphogram experiment (Step 2.1) but this time increase the concentration of the seed-stock used in the seeded wells. The seed stock can be increased by using more crystals in its creation. For example, instead of 5 wells in Step 2.1.1.5, use 10 wells.
      4. View or image the plate over the first 0, 3, 6, 12, 18, 24 h.
      5. The Xn should have increased and the Xs decreased in the seeded-drops. Repeat this cycle if smaller crystals are needed and then follow a seeded-batch protocol.
  2. Gradually scaling
    1. Scaling in 96-well plates. From the endothiapepsin morphogram, a straight batch method using the crystallization condition 0.1 M Tris-HCl pH 7.0, 0.15 M MgCl2, and 30% (w/v) PEG 6,000, was initially selected for scaling. 100 mg/mL endothiapepsin mixed with the crystallization buffer in a 1:1 ratio.
      1. Prepare 2-3 wells in a 2-well 96-well sitting-drop plate with 100 µL of 0.1 M Tris-HCl pH 7.0, 0.15 M MgCl2, and 30% (w/v) PEG 6,000.
      2. Using freshly defrosted 100 mg/mL endothiapepsin solution, dispense 0.5 µL of protein and 0.5 µL precipitant per well, seal and store at 20°C.
      3. View or image the plate over the first 0, 3, 6, 12, 18, 24 h. Note any changes in the range of Xs and Xn.
      4. If changes have occurred, repeat Steps 3.2.1.1 to 3.2.1.2 but increase or decrease the protein, precipitant, and/or seed concentration to restore any changes to the range of Xs and Xn.
      5. When the range of Xs and Xn are acceptable, proceed to Step 3.2.2.
    2. Scaling in 24-well hanging-drop plates
      1. Prepare a single well of a 24-well hanging-drop plate by greasing the edges of the well with vacuum grease.
      2. Prepare 0.5 mL of 0.1 M Tris-HCl pH 7.0, 0.15 M MgCl2, and 30% (w/v) PEG 6,000 and fill the greased well.
      3. Using freshly defrosted endothiapepsin solution, pipette 1 µL of protein onto the surface of a glass coverslip. Pipette 1 µL of crystallization buffer onto the protein drop and mix using the pipette.
      4. View or image the plate over the first 0, 3, 6, 12, 24 h. Note any changes in the range of Xs and Xn.
      5. If changes have occurred, repeat Steps 3.2.2.1 to 3.2.2.4 but increase or decrease the protein, precipitant, and/or seed concentration to restore any changes to the range of Xs and Xn.
      6. When/if the range of Xs and Xn are acceptable, proceed to Step 3.2.2.7.
      7. Repeat Steps 3.2.2.1 to 3.2.2.5, increasing the total volume of the experiment gradually to 10 µL.
      8. Once at a volume of 10 µL or larger, proceed to centrifuge tubes in Step 3.2.3.
    3. Scaling in centrifuge tubes
      NOTE: The refinement of the endothiapepsin batch condition principally happened at the point of 200 µL volumes (see Results, Scaling). The process began with a crystallization condition of 0.1 M Tris-HCl pH 7.0, 0.15 M MgCl2, and 30% (w/v) PEG 6,000. However, the PEG concentration ultimately changed to 40% (w/v). Seeds were also required to control the Xn, and to prevent crystals growing too large, crystal growth had to be quenched. Steps 3.2.3.1 to 3.2.3.7 detail the process of condition optimization. Step 3.2.4. describe the final batch protocol.
      1. Prepare 1 mL crystallization buffer: 0.1 M Tris-HCl pH 7.0, 0.15 M MgCl2, and 30% (w/v) PEG 6,000.
      2. Using freshly defrosted 100 mg/mL endothiapepsin add 25 µL of protein to a 1.5 mL centrifuge tube.
      3. Thoroughly mix the crystallization buffer with the protein solution in a 1:1 ratio with a pipette tip. Place the tube in a revolver/rotator with high agitation at 20 °C.
      4. Take regular (5, 10, 30, 60 min, 2, 5, 10, 24 h) 2.5 µL aliquots and view in a hemocytometer. Record the Xn and the Xs range.
      5. If changes have occurred, repeat Steps 3.2.3.1. to 3.2.3.4. but increase or decrease the protein, precipitant, and/or seed concentration to restore any changes to the range of Xs and Xn
      6. When the range of Xs and Xn are acceptable, proceed to Step 3.2.3.7.
      7. Repeat Steps 3.2.2.1 to 3.2.2.5, increasing the total volume of the experiment gradually to 200 µL or larger, as required.
    4. Final seeded-batch protocol
      1. Prepare seed-stock.
        1. Prepare 2 mL of crystallization buffer: 0.1 M Tris-HCl pH 7.0, 0.15 M MgCl2, and 40% (w/v) PEG 6,000.
        2. Using freshly defrosted 100 mg/mL endothiapepsin add 100 µL of protein to a 1.5 mL centrifuge tube.
        3. Thoroughly mix the crystallization buffer with the protein solution in a 1:1 ratio with a pipette tip. Place the tube in a revolver/rotator with high agitation at 20 °C for 24 h to allow 50 µm crystals to grow.
        4. Add 10-15 1 mm glass beads to the 50 µm crystal slurry.
        5. Vortex the centrifuge tube containing the slurry and beads at 1000 rpm for 30 s.
        6. Return the centrifuge tube to ice for 30 s.
        7. Repeat Steps 3.2.4.1.5 and 3.2.4.1.6 10 more times.
        8. This is now 200 µL of a 1x seed-stock. Dilute the seed-stock 10x by the addition of 1.8 mL of crystallization buffer. Aliquot the 10x seed-stock in 50 µL batches and store at -20 °C.
      2. Seeded-batch protocol.
        1. Prepare crystallization buffer: 0.1 M Tris-HCl pH 7.0, 0.15 M MgCl2, and 40% (w/v) PEG 6,000.
        2. In a centrifuge tube, mix 100 µL of crystallization buffer with the 50 µL of freshly defrosted 10x seed-stock.
        3. Using freshly defrosted 100 mg/mL endothiapepsin add 150 µL of protein to a 1.5 mL centrifuge tube.
        4. Thoroughly mix the crystallization buffer/seed mixture with the endothiapepsin solution with a pipette tip and place the tube in a revolver/rotator with high agitation at 20 °C.
        5. Monitor the crystallization by taking regular 2.5 µL aliquots and view the crystals in a hemocytometer. Record the Xn and the Xs range.
        6. After approximately 80 min, when the crystals have reached an Xs of 15 µm, quench the reaction by the addition of 150 µL of 0.05 M Na Acetate pH 4.6, 0.05 M Tris-HCl pH 7.0, 0.075 M MgCl2, and 20% (w/v) PEG 6,000 (a solution composed of endothiapepsin buffer and crystallization buffer, mixed 1:1).
        7. Store the crystals at 20 °C.
      3. Has the protocol produced an acceptable crystal size range and number for the intended experiment? Yes - DONE- No - return to Step 3.1. and attempt an alternative scaling option. For example, a different protein:precipitant ratio may be possible or adding seeds if this was not done previously. When these are all exhausted, it might be necessary to find a new condition at Step 1.

结果

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优化晶体形貌
步骤1:优化晶体形态,旨在提醒读者其重要性。尽管有可能从衍射性能较差的针状团簇中获得完美的微晶,但作者建议应将晶体形态与衍射质量分别优化。首先,寻找能够产生衍射良好、单一体的晶体的条件 通过 蒸气扩散法,然后将这些条件转化为批量反应,而不是尝试将两个步骤合并在一起。在此阶段,发现高成核条件并非必要;主要目标是获得良好的晶体形貌和衍射质量。

在开始内切天冬氨酸蛋白酶的微晶化之前,对PDB中已收录的结构结晶条件进行了分析。在48个内切天冬氨酸蛋白酶的结构提交中,有47个可以获得结晶条件和大致的实验方案。这些条件基本上均基于Moews和Bunn(1970)首次进行的内切天冬氨酸蛋白酶结晶实验46。鉴于这些条件具有相似性且来源“经典”,因此采用96孔板的气相扩散稀疏矩阵筛选方法,以探索更广泛的结晶条件。将内切天冬氨酸蛋白酶浓缩至70 mg/mL,并在96孔坐滴板中于20 °C下进行PACT稀疏矩阵筛选47,每孔混合100 nL蛋白溶液与100 nL储液。该实验在36小时后,所有条件均产生了晶体。然而,对晶体形态的分析表明,某些条件可能更有利于微晶化的优化。

图4A 显示了PACT筛选中一个在整块板上大多数孔中具有广泛代表性的液滴。乍一看,人们可能会认为这些晶体值得进一步优化以用于微晶结晶。这些晶体尺寸较大,且似乎存在显著的成核现象。然而,整体晶体形态并不理想。首先,这些晶体并非明显独立的单晶,而是从单个成核点生长出多个晶体。其次,晶体尺寸高度不对称,主要沿单一轴向生长。这类晶体在送入X射线束时理论上更容易发生优先取向。这两种特性都会在串行晶体学数据的收集和处理过程中带来问题。

图4B显示了在MgCl2存在下生长的内切蛋白酶晶体。所有含有MgCl2的条件均产生一致的晶体形貌,因此表明该形貌是由MgCl2所致。含有MgCl2的条件生成了单一、更接近立方体状的晶体,更适合后续的序列实验。

PACT 筛选中包含四种含有 MgCl2 的条件。为了更好地理解这些条件中各组分对内切蛋白酶结晶的影响,进行了随机优化。设计了一个筛选实验,其中包含不同浓度和 pH 值范围内的缓冲液和沉淀剂的随机组合。同时改变了 MgCl2 的浓度,然后根据晶体外观质量和沉淀程度,将所得液滴随意分为 0-5 级(0 表示无晶体或无沉淀)。

图5A展示了降水水平与晶体质量以及筛选变量之间皮尔逊相关性分析结果的热图(本实验中液滴的示例见图5BCD)。结果表明,溶液的pH值与沉淀水平高度相关,碱性缓冲液导致更多的沉淀。MgCl2浓度与沉淀水平呈轻微相关,而pH值和沉淀剂浓度则与晶体质量相关。

根据这些结果,决定将生长在 0.1 M Tris-HCl pH 7.0、0.15 M MgCl2、20% (w/v) PEG 6,000 条件下的晶体推进至实验方案的下一步——过渡到批量结晶。晶体形态可接受,且对这些晶体的X射线衍射及数据质量指标的分析表明,在有无 Mg2+ 条件下生长的晶体之间无显著差异(图9)。

向批量法过渡
对于许多序列晶体学微晶优化实验而言,第2步将是起点。目标蛋白此前已通过悬滴气相扩散法完成结晶,用于冷冻晶体学研究,现在需要将该结晶方案转化为生成微晶悬浊液的批量法。本方案仅使用了96孔气相扩散板来实现向批量法的转化,因为目前蛋白质数据库(PDB)中95%的条目所采用的结晶方法均为气相扩散法26。本方案未涉及向微量批量法(microbatch)34,35,37的转换,因为此类转换可能仍需进行类似的优化。但这并不意味着本方案只能在气相扩散板中进行。如果原始结晶方法为微量批量法,则本方案所列所有步骤同样适用于该体系。

为了评估内孢霉蛋白酶在选定条件下的结晶情况,创建了一个形态图(morphogram)——即粗略的相图。形态图实验的目的有三:首先,形态图分析在评估第三步中的放大路线时具有重要价值—— 缩放其次,形态图可作为优化工具,有助于发现能够产生晶体的蒸气扩散条件 通过 批次即, 快速出现的晶体(< 24 h)]。第三,如果晶体未能迅速出现,对接种后的液滴进行分析可使晶体学家大致判断当前条件在相图中的位置。例如,如果接种的条件产生了晶体,而未接种的条件没有产生晶体,则这些条件很可能位于亚稳区。

内切天冬氨酸蛋白酶的形态图实验基于以下条件进行:0.1 M Tris-HCl(pH 7.0)、0.15 M MgCl2、20%(w/v)PEG 6,000。蛋白质浓度和PEG浓度分别从100 mg/mL至12.5 mg/mL以及5%(w/v)至40%(w/v)进行变化。通过所提供的工作表对液滴进行分析并绘制结果(图6A)。

从那时起也已经很明显 优化晶体形貌 在此条件下,且在这些蛋白质浓度下,内切天冬氨酸蛋白酶晶体的生长将在24小时内完成。这表明结晶过程正在发生 通过 一个批次过程,而非由蒸气扩散驱动的过程。因此,在这些条件下生长的晶体适合放大至更大体积的规模。

如果在24小时后未观察到未接种晶种的液滴中出现晶体,则表明结晶过程可能仍依赖于成核转变(图1B),因此不属于批量结晶。在这种情况下,形态图实验的结果仍然具有参考价值。这些结果可提示相图上结晶的可能起始位置,从而指导后续优化实验的进行。观察接种晶种的液滴:晶种可在亚稳态区促进晶体生长,而无需依赖成核过程。例如,若在24小时内接种晶种的液滴中出现晶体,而未接种晶种的液滴中未出现晶体,则表明可观察到部分亚稳态区域。如果在接种与未接种晶种的液滴中均未观察到晶体,则所有孔位仍处于未饱和状态。

放大实验
通过观察形态图(图6A),可以得出若干结论。成核数量似乎同时受到蛋白质浓度和沉淀剂浓度的影响。此外,不同液滴的结果之间存在非常清晰的界限:液滴中要么无任何产物,要么形成晶体,要么产生沉淀物(图6B)。加入晶种后(图6D),与未加晶种的液滴(图6C)相比,Xn显著增加。综合以上所有结果,决定尝试在30% (w/v) PEG 6,000和100 mg/mL endothiapepsin条件下,放大批次反应和加晶种批次反应的实验规模。

初步的放大实验在24孔悬滴板中进行。逐渐增加液滴体积,以便观察结晶行为的任何变化(图7)。如图所示,无论是未接种的还是接种的液滴中均发生了晶体生长。所有未接种的液滴均生长出不同尺寸的晶体,但主要为大尺寸晶体(100–200 µm——最长维度)。然而,接种的液滴则产生较小的晶体(5–50 µm——最长维度)。这些初步实验表明,需要使用晶种来降低Xs,同时也表明该条件适用于较大体积的实验。

当体积增加200 µL时,在晶体生长过程中持续搅动结晶液。搅动的主要目的是确保结晶溶液保持均一,防止生长中的晶体沉降在管底或管壁上。晶体沉降可能导致晶体群体不均一,出现大小差异显著的晶体。搅动结晶溶液还可促进成核44,45

遗憾的是,未接种的30% (w/v) PEG 6,000未产生任何晶体,因此将PEG浓度提高至35% (w/v)。这一调整显著改善了结晶效果,最终Xn和Xs分别为3.6 ± 1.2 × 106 crystals·mL-1和42 ± 4.1 µm(图8AB - 黑色)。尽管结晶效果已有显著提升且晶体浓度达到可接受水平,但最终晶体尺寸对于计划中的实验而言过大,因此进一步开展了优化。为减小最终晶体的尺寸,探索了两种途径(图1E):降低蛋白质浓度以尝试限制晶体的最终生长(图8AB - 热粉色),以及提高PEG浓度以尝试增加成核数量(图8AB - 绿色)。

不幸的是,降低蛋白质浓度也显著降低了Xn,最终导致晶体尺寸更大。将PEG浓度提高至40%后,最终Xn和Xs分别为3.1 ± 0.7 × 106 个晶体·mL-1和39 ± 2.3 µm。该结果与35% PEG条件相比无显著差异,但由于最终晶体尺寸减小,因此后续优化实验继续采用此条件。

为了增加 Xn,加入了晶种。这显著提高了 Xn(1.1 ± 1.8 × 108 个晶体·mL-1),并导致 Xs 减小(4.2 ± 4.0 µm)(图8AB 紫色虚线)。这些晶体虽然非常适合某些序列晶体学实验,但被认为尺寸过小,因此调整了所加晶种的浓度。

然而,添加晶种的调节过程被证明难以可靠地重复;因此,尝试了淬灭法。在加入晶种后,监测晶体尺寸,一旦达到合适的晶体尺寸(约 10 - 20 µm),即对批次结晶进行淬灭(图 8CD)。关于微结晶,淬灭法曾在 Kupitz 等(2014)25 中提出。尽管该方法可能并非理想选择,因为最终会浪费蛋白溶液26,但在本情况下该技术非常有用,因为晶体生长难以控制。淬灭的基本原理是将结晶混合物迅速恢复至恰好位于溶解度线以上的位置(图 1F)。一旦溶液回到溶解度线,即重新达到稳定的饱和状态,晶体将不再继续生长。

尝试淬灭结晶反应并非没有风险。如果加入过多的淬灭溶液,溶液中的蛋白质可能会被过度稀释,导致穿过溶解度线。在这种情况下,溶液将变为欠饱和状态,晶体将开始溶解。为防止这种情况发生,可根据形态图结果估算所需淬灭溶液的量。在淬灭时,记录蛋白质溶液的浓度,通过比较溶解度线处的蛋白质浓度与溶液中的实际蛋白质浓度,即可估算出所需的稀释倍数。

40% (w/v) PEG 6,000 经 10 倍稀释的淬灭种子实验,最终获得的晶体浓度和尺寸范围分别为 2.6 ± 3.1 × 106 个晶体·mL-1 和 15 ± 3.9 µm。

在整个过程中,在瑞士光源PXII光束线上对内切蛋白酶晶体进行X射线数据收集,使用10 × 30 µm的聚焦光斑、12.4 keV的能量(衰减80%),并在低温条件下进行。数据使用dials软件处理,图9展示了CC½的比较结果。在整个优化过程中,CC½未观察到显著变化。

Protein crystallization phase diagrams illustrating nucleation, optimization, and crystal growth methods.
图1:过渡结晶与分批结晶的概述,以及在相图上标示的放大方法。A. 蛋白质结晶相图的典型区域与边界。沉淀剂浓度和蛋白质浓度分别绘制在横轴和纵轴上。 xy 分别以轴表示,纯水点位于原点。紫色线表示蛋白质过饱和边界,亚稳区、成核区和沉淀区分别以蓝色、绿色和粉色表示。 B. 一种“过渡相”结晶方法(如 vapor diffusion)中成核区渗透极限的示例。在此理论实验中,液滴中的沉淀剂和蛋白质浓度初始值略低于溶解度线,尚未达到过饱和状态。随着液滴逐渐平衡,其组分浓度上升,使液滴进入过饱和状态,并持续向成核区移动或过渡。一旦晶体开始成核,溶液中的蛋白质浓度即开始下降。随着晶体生长,该浓度持续降低,直至最终停止于溶解度线处。蓝色虚线表示向成核区过渡的理论极限。一旦成核开始,蛋白质浓度即下降,从而阻止进一步渗透。 关键词:vapor diffusion,过渡相,成核区,过饱和,溶解度线,晶体生长,蛋白质结晶 C. 批量与接种批量结晶过程的示例轨迹。在批量结晶中,蛋白质与沉淀剂的混合必须形成处于成核区内的过饱和溶液,以促使晶体生长发生。在接种批量结晶中,由于加入了微晶种子,因此不必严格处于成核区内,亦可探索亚稳区内的条件。 D. 如图所示结晶实验的假设性优化 B 从蒸气扩散法转向批量法。最初的蒸气扩散起始方法已经转变, 通过 将得到的优化向量应用于成核区内的新起始位置。该结果向量是两次优化的乘积:蛋白质浓度和沉淀剂浓度均有所增加。 E. 扩大批次条件时优化示例以定制最终 Xn 和 Xs. F. 通过加入结晶缓冲液终止结晶实验。关键在于,终止过程不能使蛋白质浓度脱离亚稳态区域,从而低于蛋白质过饱和点,否则晶体将开始重新溶解到溶液中。 B. C. 改编自 Beale 等(2019)26 经作者许可。 请点击此处以查看此图的放大版本。

结晶过程示意图;成核事件与晶体数量及尺寸分析图
图 2:提高 Xn 并降低 Xs 结晶实验中生成的晶体数量与其平均最长尺寸之间的理想化关系。绘制该图时采用了一种假设的 10 kDa 模型蛋白的结晶过程。该蛋白在 10 mg/mL 浓度下结晶,得到空间群为 P212121 的晶体,其尺寸为 49×50×51 Å。假设每次成核事件均产生一个晶体,且晶体从各个晶面均呈均相生长。请点击此处查看该图的放大版本。

晶体生长优化流程图;包含形态、批次和放大过程步骤的示意图。
图 3:流程图显示了将小体积(<500 nL)气相扩散实验中生长的晶体优化为大体积(> 100 µL)批次实验的各个步骤。 晶体优化分为三个阶段:(1)优化晶体形态;(2)过渡到批次法;(3)放大。在第1阶段,重要的是识别适合微晶化的合适晶体。某些蛋白质无论在何种结晶条件下都仅呈现一种晶体形态。然而,值得寻找能够产生单一、立方体状晶体或尽可能接近此类形态的条件。理论上和经验上,单一且接近立方体的晶体通常能为序列晶体学实验带来更好的结果。一旦选定晶体形态并确认其衍射能力,接下来就需要将结晶实验从气相扩散法过渡到批次法(第2阶段)。在此阶段,应通过成核时间来优化晶体。目标是找到能快速形成晶体(> 24 h)的条件,因为这些条件很可能立即进入成核区,因而适用于批次法。一旦确定了处于成核区的条件,便可构建形态图(morphogram)。形态图可用于绘制大部分成核区范围,并识别出第3阶段潜在的放大路径。随后,所确定的批次条件体积可逐步或迅速扩大,最终达到>100 µL 的终体积。请点击此处查看此图的放大版本。

蛋白质结晶实验;含SPG和HEPES缓冲液、PEG、MgCl2浓度的样品。
图4:来自PACT稀疏矩阵筛选的内切天冬氨酸蛋白酶结晶条件分析。A.B. 分别为PACT筛选中A4和C10孔在24小时后的照片。图中高亮显示了结晶缓冲液的组分。SPG缓冲液由琥珀酸、磷酸二氢钠和甘氨酸按2:7:7的摩尔比混合而成。请点击此处查看该图的放大版本。

结晶分析;pH、MgCl2、PEG 效应的网格数据;晶体生长的显微镜图像。
图 5:基于 PACT MgCl2 条件的内切蛋白酶结晶优化分析。A. 缓冲液 pH、MgCl2 浓度和沉淀剂浓度与沉淀程度及晶体质量之间的 Pearson 相关性分析热图。沉淀程度和晶体质量均在 24 小时后根据 0–5 的任意等级进行评估(0 表示无晶体或无沉淀)。B. C.D. 展示了三个不同液滴中结晶和沉淀的示例,同时显示了结晶条件以及对沉淀程度和晶体质量的评估结果。请点击此处查看该图的放大版本。

结晶相态与条件;PEG 浓度、成核、沉淀;显微镜观察。
图 6:内切天冬氨酸蛋白酶在 0.1 M Tris-HCl(pH 7.0)、0.15 M MgCl2 和 PEG 6,000 条件下结晶的形态图。A. 形态图由提供的“相图生成器”电子表格创建。每个液滴中晶体的相对数量以圆圈大小表示,液滴 1(蛋白质与沉淀剂)和液滴 2(蛋白质、沉淀剂及晶种)的结果分别以绿色和蓝色突出显示。x 轴和 y 轴上的蛋白质和沉淀剂浓度值表示预混合浓度,而非最终体积。根据实验结果,已绘制黑色线和紫色线,分别表示成核区和亚稳区的边界。B. C.D. 展示了部分实验结果。A. 中标记的红色和蓝色点分别对应 B.C.D. 的位置。请点击此处查看该图的放大版本。

CryoEM 网格制备的差异、显微镜图像、样品体积影响,比例尺 0.1–2.0 mm。
图 7:内切天冬酶在 24 孔悬滴板中的初步缩放实验。 所有实验均使用相同的蛋白质和沉淀剂浓度:100 mg/mL 内切天冬酶分别溶于 0.1 M 醋酸钠(pH 4.6)和 0.1 M Tris-HCl(pH 7.0)、0.15 M MgCl2 以及 30%(w/v)PEG 6,000。所有显示图像均在 24 小时后拍摄,各图像中标注了最终液滴体积。左侧面板(ADG)为蛋白质与沉淀剂按 1:1 混合,中间面板(BEH)为晶种、沉淀剂与蛋白质按 1:2:3 混合,右侧面板(CFI)为中间面板的放大图像。请点击此处查看该图的放大版本。

聚乙二醇结晶动力学;图A-D显示浓度随时间变化及淬灭时间点。
图8:内切天冬酶微晶在200–300 µL体积中的结晶过程分析。A和C展示了实验过程中Xn 随时间的变化情况。BD展示了Xs(最长尺寸)随时间的变化情况。为便于清晰展示,实验结果已分别呈现。图CD中的红色虚线表示实施淬灭的时间点。请点击此处查看该图的放大版本。

蛋白质结晶示意图;CC1/2分辨率图;晶体形成的显微镜图像。
图9:用于评估衍射质量的微结晶过程中各阶段获得的CC½结果及晶体图像。A. 根据从晶体中收集的数据绘制的CC½随分辨率变化曲线,这些晶体分别在有Mg和无Mg条件下生长——属于第1阶段优化实验,体积分别为200 nL、10 µL和最终的300 µL。B.C.D. 分别显示了来自200 nL、10 µL和300 µL体积的晶体图像。请点击此处查看此图的高清版本。

蛋白质信息
蛋白质Endothiapepsin
分子量 (kDa)33.8
空间群P1211
a, b, c (Å)45.2, 73.3, 52.7
α, β, ɣ (°)90.0, 109.2, 90.0
固定靶参数
每芯片加载体积 (µL)150
每芯片孔径数25,600
所需晶体浓度 (晶体/mL)500,000
样品信息
制备200 µL样品所用蛋白质质量 (mg)10
晶体最长尺寸 (µm)15
晶体浓度 (晶体/mL)2,500,000
实验变量
所需时间点数量5
每个时间点所需图像数量50,000
命中率 (已积分图谱/采集图像)0.3
每个时间点所需固定靶数量 (向上取整)7
样品需求
每个时间点所需样品体积 (µL)1,050
实验所需总样品体积 (mL)5.25
所需蛋白质总质量 (mg)52.5

表1:使用固定靶标进行假想光学泵浦-探测实验的样品需求示例。 本理论实验中使用的蛋白质为内切天冬氨酸蛋白酶(endothiapepsin)。固定靶标参数基于Ebrahim et al.(2019)48 和 Davy et al.(2019)49 报道的实验。样品信息来自本视频文章中报告的实验方案,实验变量则是基于实际经验的保守估计。根据上述假设,随后计算出以下样品需求。

讨论

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本文所述方法展示了如何将内切蛋白酶的晶体从稀疏矩阵96孔板中生长的大晶体(最长尺寸≥100 µm)优化为在离心管(300 µL体积)中生长的微晶。 通过 批次。该方案背后的理念是,用于优化内切天冬氨酸蛋白酶的步骤也可应用于其他蛋白质。最终,解决大规模制备(>100 µL 的微晶(10–20 µm),用于在X射线自由电子激光装置(XFELs)和同步辐射光源上进行序列晶体学实验。

该方案将大体积微晶结晶的任务分为三个步骤:(1) 优化晶体形态,(2) 转为批量法,以及(3) 放大规模。在第1步中,应在蒸汽扩散板中探索蛋白质可能形成的晶体形态范围。目标是获得单一、呈方盒状且衍射分辨率达到要求的晶体。在第2步中,可将选定的条件从蒸汽扩散法转换为批量法。此处的优化标准是晶体生长时间,目标是找到能在24小时内形成蛋白质晶体的条件。此外,还可绘制形态图(morphogram),帮助实验者了解溶解度线和成核区边界的可能位置。该形态图在第3步(放大)中具有重要用途,可提示仅通过增加成核数Xn是否足以降低饱和浓度Xs。随着实验体积的增大,Xn和Xs可被持续评估,作为衡量放大成功与否的关键指标。

对于内切天冬氨酸蛋白酶(Endothiapepsin),步骤1发现了一种可能是此前未知的晶体形态。该形态与先前报道的晶体具有相同的空间群,但更重要的是,其形状更接近立方体,这对序列晶体学研究尤为有利。单个晶体似乎从单一成核点生长而成,不同于其他条件下形成的扇状聚集体(图4)。对于所选条件,步骤2已部分满足,因为晶体在<24小时内即完成生长。形态图谱表明,在步骤3的放大过程中,直接批量生长或接种批量生长方案均可能成功。初步采用直接批量法进行放大,所得晶体的数密度(Xn)和尺寸(Xs)分别为3.6 ± 1.2 × 106 个晶体·mL-1 和 42 ± 4.1 µm。尽管这些晶体可用于某些序列晶体学实验,但仍被认为过大,因此进行了进一步优化。最终方案获得的晶体浓度为3.1 × 106 个晶体·mL-1,尺寸为15 ± 3.9 µm,完全符合计划实验的理想要求。

该方法着重于将通过蒸气扩散法培养板生长的“可溶性”蛋白质晶体转化为批量法(batch)。之所以关注这一点,是因为绝大多数可溶性蛋白质晶体均通过蒸气扩散法生长via vapor diffusion26。然而,所述概念也可应用于采用其他方法(如微批量法)生长的可溶性蛋白质晶体。这些概念也可能适用于在LCP中生长的膜蛋白晶体;因为这同样是一种批量结晶过程。

该方案的一个关键方面是将通过蒸气扩散板培养的晶体生长条件转化为适用于批量培养的条件。为实现这一转化,该方法采用了 Beale 等人(2019)提出的标准。26结晶生长 通过 即使在蒸汽扩散板中,批量处理过程也会迅速形成< 24 小时)。该标准是基于蒸气扩散液滴平衡速度的估算,对于聚乙二醇(PEG)类沉淀剂条件最为适用。然而,结晶条件中包含多种多样的化合物,这些化合物会影响平衡所需时间。盐类结晶条件的平衡过程, 例如 高浓度的氯化铵在1-2天内即可发生,因此基于盐类条件下的24小时标准可能并不适用。此外,盐类条件还可能具有更复杂的相图26, 30 可能不符合本方案中所述的标准模式。如果无法扩大至更大体积,则可能需要将基于盐条件的时间标准缩短至12小时或6小时。

该方法的另一个局限性在于其表面上的复杂性。为优化内切蛋白酶微晶结晶所遵循的实验方案,实际上对稀疏矩阵筛选中的原始条件改动较小。在PACT筛选中观察到的首个阳性结果为:0.1 M HEPES(pH 7.0)、0.2 M MgCl2 和20%(w/v)PEG 6,000。最终放大的结晶缓冲液组成为:0.1 M Tris-HCl(pH 7.0)、0.15 M MgCl2 和40%(w/v)PEG 6,000。此外,缓冲体系由HEPES更换为Tris-HCl以及MgCl2浓度的调整,可能对实验成功贡献甚微。因此,真正的优化可能仅在于PEG 6,000浓度的提高,而这一调整本可以非常简单地实现。

然而,这种评估也过于简单化。它不仅忽略了在放大过程中遇到的问题( 使用晶种和淬灭),也忽视了一个事实:即使这种蛋白质的放大过程较为顺利,也不能保证下一种蛋白质同样如此。本方案中建议的步骤之所以被制定,是因为优化蛋白质结晶体积的放大过程可能会消耗大量蛋白质。在所示的七次软蛋白酶(endothiapepsin)放大试验中,共消耗了100 mg蛋白质。诚然,其中部分步骤是为了展示在此方案背景下可能产生的结果而进行的。即便如此,100 mg蛋白质,加上实验过程中可能额外消耗的50 mg蛋白质(表1),无论在时间还是经费上都是一笔不小的投入。

幸运的是,并非所有蛋白质都需要如此大量的样品。内皮蛋白酶具有很高的溶解度,因此需要较高的蛋白质浓度才能达到过饱和状态。而对于其他一些蛋白质(目前仍在优化中),在 10 甚至 5 mg/mL 的浓度下即可达到过饱和。这类变量具有蛋白质特异性,出现时需予以充分考虑。

该方法的其他局限性包括依赖复杂的设备,例如用于筛选和制板的液体处理机器人,以及在需要时自动拍摄平板图像的成像仪。已有替代方案可减少对部分设备的需求,但若缺少这些设备,实验流程将更加耗时。本方案还建议测试优化后晶体的衍射能力。对于无法常规使用同步辐射光源的晶体学家而言,这些测试可能具有挑战性。尽管并非每一步骤都必须设置对照,但强烈建议在发现阳性结果后,以及在数据缩放前和缩放后进行这些测试。在X射线自由电子激光装置(XFEL)中,无法衍射的晶体并不罕见。因此,在对晶体衍射能力做出假设时,采取谨慎态度更为妥当。

最终,本文提供的实验方案和结果将为那些在制备用于序列晶体学实验样品方面存在困难的研究人员提供指导、思路和实例。希望随着序列晶体学技术的进一步发展,该技术对样品的需求能够降低,从而减少对这类实验方案的需求。然而,即使在那种情况下,本文所展示的策略对于希望探索其蛋白质结晶条件空间的研究人员而言,仍将具有重要参考价值。

披露

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作者无任何利益冲突需要披露。

致谢

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本项目获得了欧盟“地平线2020”研究与创新计划在玛丽·斯克沃多夫斯卡-居里资助协议第701647号下的资金支持。 衷心感谢瑞士光源X10SA-PXII光束线科学家们提供的协助与支持。

材料

本文使用的材料清单
姓名公司目录编号评论
Swissci 96孔2滴板Molecular DimensionsMD11-00296孔2滴结晶板
Swissci 96孔3滴板Molecular DimensionsMD11-00396孔3滴结晶板
mosquito LCP 液体处理机器人sptlabtechmosquito LCP结晶机器人
ClearVue 密封膜片Molecular DimensionsMD6-01596孔结晶板密封膜
Safe-Tube 1.5 mLEppendorf301200861.5 mL 离心管
手术刀片Swan and MortonNo. 3 手术刀片和 No. 3 刀柄用于切割打开板密封膜的手术刀片
MS 3 涡旋振荡器IKA3319000用于混合溶液及制备晶种储备液的涡旋振荡器
24孔XRL板Molecular DimensionsMD3-1124孔悬滴结晶板
试管旋转混合仪/旋转器Thermo Fischer Scientific88881001扩增过程中用于混合溶液的试管旋转仪
Eppendorf Research plus 移液器Eppendorf手动移液器系列,0.5–10、1–20、10–100、100–1000 µL
Eppendorf 移液器吸头Eppendorf适用于手动移液器的各种吸头规格
Suparen 600Prochem AGSuparen 600内切蛋白酶溶液
乙酸钠Sigma-Aldrich241245-1KG乙酸钠
TrisMerck8382T014Tris
氯化镁Sigma-AldrichM2670-1kg氯化镁
PEG 6,000Sigma-Aldrich81255-1kgPEG 6,000
乙二醇Sigma-Aldrich324558-1L用于晶体低温保护的乙二醇
PACT Premier HT 筛选试剂盒Molecular DimensionsMD1-36PACT Premier 96孔晶体筛选板
DOW CORNING 高真空润滑脂Molecular DimensionsMD6-02用于密封24孔板的润滑脂
Hirschmann 22 × 22 mm 玻璃盖玻片Hirschmann8000104用于密封24孔坐滴板的盖玻片
晶体取样针PSI自制微小晶体的薄膜支撑装置
1–1.3 mm SiLibeads Type SFaust6239547用于制备微晶种储备液的玻璃珠
Macbook ProAppleMacbook Pro用于数据分析的计算机
CCP4 软件套件CCP4衍射图样数据处理软件
ExcelMicrosoftMicrosoft Office相图绘制工具
Hausser Scientific Bright-Line 计数室Thermo Fischer Scientific02-671-51B用于计算晶体浓度的工具
PACT PremierMolecular DimensionsMD1-29-ECO稀疏矩阵结晶筛选试剂盒
Rock ImagerFormulatrixRock Imager温控晶体板储存与成像系统
Rock MakerWebFormulatrixRock MakerWeb晶体板制备与图像存储软件
FormulatorFormulatrixFormulator96孔晶体筛选板制备液体处理机器人
Leica MZ16 显微镜LeicaLeica MZ16光学显微镜
LAS V4.6LeicaLAS V4.6Leica 显微镜配套软件
Spectra/Por 3.5 kDa 透析管SpectrumlabsSpectra/Por 3 透析膜3.5 kDa 透析膜
透析管封口夹SpectrumlabsSpectra/Por 3 通用封口夹用于密封透析管末端的夹子
Amicon 10 kDa 离心浓缩管Merck-MilliporeAmicon Ultra-15 10 kDa 离心浓缩管10 kDa 离心滤膜
5810 R 摆桶式离心机Eppendorf5810 R 离心机摆桶式离心机

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