Name: electron transfer and chemical equilibrium
Uploaded: 2023-06-23T15:38:43.000Z
Duration: 1 min 8 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

north-carolina-k-12-science-standard-course-of-study

North Carolina K-12 Science Standard Course of Study

9-12

Chemistry

Matter and its Interactions

PS.Chm.4.1

types-of-chemical-reactions-exchange-and-reversible

Types of Chemical Reactions: Exchange and Reversible

בתגובות חליפין, שני מגיבים או יותר מחליפים את האטומים שלהם ליצירת תוצרים.
תגובות אלה כוללות הן פירוק – שבירת קשרים במגיבים, והן סינתזה – יצירת קשרים חדשים ליצירת תוצרים.
לדוגמה, כאשר מולקולת גלוקוז מגיבה עם ATP, קבוצת פוספט מ-ATP מועברת לגלוקוז, ומייצרת ADP וגלוקוז 6-פוספט.
רוב התגובות הכימיות הן הפיכות; המוצרים יכולים להגיב ליצירת המגיבים המקוריים.
לדוגמה, בדם, פחמן דו חמצני ומים מגיבים ליצירת יוני ביקרבונט ומימן בתגובה הפיכה.
כאן, התגובה קדימה, שיוצרת את התוצרים, והתגובה ההפוכה, שממירה את המוצרים בחזרה למגיבים, יכולות להגיע למצב של שיווי משקל ללא שינוי נטו בכמויות המגיבים והתוצרים.
במקרה זה, שיווי המשקל בין שתי התגובות מסייע לשמור על ה- pH בדם.

סוגי תגובות כימיות: החלפה והפיכה

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תגובת החלפה היא תגובה כימית שבה מתרחשים גם סינתזה וגם פירוק, קשרים כימיים נוצרים ונשברים ואנרגיה כימית נספגת, מאוחסנת ומשתחררת.

סוג מיוחד של תגובת החלפה היא תגובת החמצון-הפחתת, או תגובת החיזור. תגובות אלו כרוכות בהעברת אלקטרונים מתרכובת אחת לאחרת. האלקטרונים בתגובות אלה מגיעים בדרך כלל מאטומי מימן, המורכבים מאלקטרון ומפרוטון. מולקולה מוותרת על אטום מימן בצורה של יון מימן (H^+) ואלקטרון, ומפרקת את המולקולה לחלקים קטנים יותר. אובדן של אלקטרון (חמצון) משחרר כמות קטנה של אנרגיה; הן האלקטרון והן האנרגיה מועברים לאחר מכן למולקולה אחרת בתהליך של הפחתה או צבירת אלקטרון. שתי התגובות הללו מתרחשות תמיד ביחד, וכאשר אלקטרון מועבר בין מולקולות, התורם מתחמצן, והמקבל מצטמצם. תגובות חמצון-הפחתה קורות לעתים קרובות בסדרה, כך שמולקולה שמצטמצמת מתחמצנת לאחר מכן, ומעבירה לא רק את האלקטרון שזה עתה קיבלה, אלא גם את האנרגיה שקיבלה.

בתיאוריה, כל תגובה כימית יכולה להתקדם בכל כיוון בתנאים הנכונים. בתגובות הפיכות, מגיבים הופכים למוצרים, אך כאשר ריכוז התוצרים חורג מסף מסוים (האופייני לתגובה המסוימת), חלק מהמוצרים הללו הופכים בחזרה למגיבים. בשלב זה, ייעודי המוצר והמגיבים מתהפכים. זה קדימה ואחורה נמשך עד שמתרחש איזון יחסי מסוים בין מגיבים לתוצרים, מצב הנקרא שיווי משקל. משוואה כימית עם חץ דו-ראשי המצביע הן לעבר המגיבים והן לתוצרים מציינת לעתים קרובות את מצבי התגובה ההפיכים הללו.

לדוגמה, בדם אנושי, יוני מימן (H^+) נקשרים ליוני ביקרבונט (HCO_3), ויוצרים מצב שיווי משקל עם חומצה פחמנית (H_2CO_3).

עם זאת, תגובות ביולוגיות לעיתים רחוקות משיגות שיווי משקל מכיוון שריכוזי המגיבים או התוצרים או שניהם משתנים כל הזמן, לעתים קרובות כאשר תגובה אחת תוצר מגיב לאחר. אם נוסיף חומצה פחמנית למערכת הזו, חלק ממנה יהפוך ליוני ביקרבונט ומימן. כאשר יש עודף יוני מימן בדם, יצירת חומצה פחמנית תהיה הכיוון העיקרי של התגובה.

טקסט זה מותאם מ <a href="https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/24-1-overview-of-metabolic-reactions">Openstax, Anatomy and Physiology 2e, Section 24.1: Overview of Metabolic Reactions</a> and <a href="https://openstax.org/books/biology-2e/pages/2-1-atoms-isotopes-ions-and-molecules-the-building-blocks">Openstax, Biology 2e, Section 2.1: Atoms, Isotopes, Ions and Molecules: The Building Blocks.</a>
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תגובת חליפין היא תגובה כימית שבה מתרחשות הן סינתזה והן פירוק, קשרים כימיים נוצרים ושבורים, וכימיים ...

Education

JoVE Core

Anatomy and Physiology

אנטומיה ופיזיולוגיה

Unit 1

יחידה 1

Fundamentals of Chemistry

יסודות הכימיה

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

מונחים ומושגים מרכזיים

electron transfer and chemical equilibrium

Exchange reactions and reversible reactions are two important ideas in chemistry. In an exchange reaction, synthesis and decomposition happen at the same time. Chemical bonds are both formed and broken. These reactions can absorb chemical energy, store it, and release it.

A special type of exchange reaction is the oxidation-reduction reaction, or redox reaction. In a redox reaction, electrons move from one compound to another. The electrons often come from hydrogen atoms, which contain one electron and one proton. When a molecule gives up a hydrogen atom as a hydrogen ion, H+, and an electron, it breaks into smaller parts.

Oxidation is the loss of an electron. It releases a small amount of energy. That electron and energy then move to another molecule during reduction, which is the gain of an electron. Oxidation and reduction always happen together. When the electron moves, the donor is oxidized and the recipient is reduced. These reactions often happen in a chain, so a molecule that is reduced can later be oxidized and pass on the electron and the energy it received.

Any chemical reaction can move in either direction under the right conditions. In a reversible reaction, reactants form products, but if the product concentration becomes high enough, some products change back into reactants. The reaction then reaches a balance between the two sides called equilibrium. A double-headed arrow in a chemical equation often shows this kind of reaction.

A common example is the balance in human blood between hydrogen ions, H+, and bicarbonate ions, HCO3-, which form carbonic acid, H2CO3. Biological reactions usually do not reach equilibrium because the concentrations keep changing. Often, one reaction's product becomes a reactant in another reaction. If carbonic acid is added to this system, some of it changes back into bicarbonate and hydrogen ions. When there are excess hydrogen ions in the blood, forming carbonic acid becomes the main direction of the reaction.

Electron Transfer and Chemical Equilibrium

electron-transfer-and-chemical-equilibrium

what is matter?

Matter, Mass, and Weight Basics

Matter is the substance that makes up the universe, from a grain of sand to a star. Scientists define matter as anything that occupies space and has mass. Mass is the amount of matter in an object, while weight depends on gravity. Mass stays the same whether an object is on Earth or in the zero-gravity environment of outer space. Weight changes when gravity changes. An object weighs more where gravity is stronger and less where gravity is weaker. A piece of cheese that weighs a pound on Earth...

the periodic table and organismal elements

the-periodic-table-and-organismal-elements

Organismal Elements in the Periodic Table

The periodic table helps identify the elements that make up living organisms. Biology groups these as organismal elements because they are the chemical building blocks of life. These elements are found in different amounts in the body. Some are present in large quantities, while others are needed only in small amounts. The video connects the periodic table to the elements that organisms actually use. Understanding organismal elements helps students link chemistry to biology. It shows how...

atomic structure

From Atomos to the Modern Atom

Atoms are the tiny building blocks of matter, and ideas about them go back to the Greek philosopher Democritus. He suggested that everything on Earth is made of atomos, a Greek word meaning "indivisible." That idea later led to the modern word atom. In the 19th century, John Dalton developed an atomic theory that is still largely correct today. He proposed five key ideas. All matter is made of tiny particles called atoms. Atoms of the same element are alike, and atoms of different elements are...

chemical symbols

Chemical Symbols and Element Names

Chemical symbols are short abbreviations that stand for an element or a single atom of that element. Mercury, for example, has the symbol Hg. The same symbol can point to one atom of mercury in the microscopic domain or to a sample labeled as many atoms of mercury in the macroscopic domain. Many symbols come from the element’s common name. Others are shortened from a name in another language. Most chemical symbols use one or two letters. For a few elements with atomic numbers above 112,...

atomic number and mass number

Atomic Identity, Mass, and Isotopes

Atomic identity depends on the number of protons in the nucleus, and mass depends on protons and neutrons together. The number of protons is the atomic number, or Z. It defines the element. For example, any atom with six protons is carbon, no matter how many neutrons or electrons it has. In a neutral atom, the number of protons equals the number of electrons. Because of that, the atomic number also tells you the number of electrons in the atom. The total number of protons and neutrons is...

atomic weight

Atomic Mass and Mole Calculations

Atomic mass and mole calculations help explain how much matter is in atoms and compounds. Protons and neutrons have about the same mass, about 1.67 × 10 -24 grams. Scientists define that mass as one atomic mass unit, or amu, also called one Dalton. Electrons are much lighter than protons. They weigh only 9.11 × 10 -28 grams, or about 1/1800 of an atomic mass unit. Because of that small mass, electrons do not add much to an element’s overall atomic mass. When chemists calculate atomic mass,...

isotopes and radioisotopes

Radioisotopes in Medicine and Imaging

Radioisotopes are unstable isotopes that can be used to study the body and treat disease. An isotope is an atom of the same element that has a different mass because it contains a different number of neutrons. It still has the same number of protons, so it remains chemically identical. English chemist Frederick Soddy explained this idea in the early 1900s and later received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1921. Some isotopes have more neutrons than usual and are called heavy isotopes. These...

electron behavior

Electron Shells and Discovery

Electrons are negatively charged subatomic particles that stay near the positively charged nucleus of an atom. They occupy spaces linked to energy levels called shells. They are also arranged into subshells and orbitals within each shell. An electron’s shell shows its general energy level. Electrons closer to the nucleus have less energy, while electrons farther away have more energy. The outer shells have more space, so they can hold more electrons than the inner shells. Subshells describe...

introduction to chemical bonds

How Atoms Bond to Reach Stability

Atoms bond to become more stable, and their outermost electrons play the biggest role in that process. The inner electron shell can hold two electrons. The next two shells can each hold eight electrons. This is called the octet rule. It states that, except for the innermost shell, atoms are most stable when their valence shell, or outer shell, has eight electrons. When atoms do not have enough electrons to fill that outer shell, they form chemical bonds with other atoms. A chemical bond is the...

ionic bonds

Ionic Bonds and Charge Transfer

Ionic bonds form when atoms transfer electrons and become charged particles. A positive ion and a negative ion attract each other because opposite charges pull together. This type of bonding helps explain how some substances are held together. In many cases, an atom loses one or more electrons, while another atom gains them. The atom that loses electrons becomes a cation, which is a positively charged ion. The atom that gains electrons becomes an anion, which is a negatively charged ion. The...

covalent bonds

Polar and Nonpolar Covalent Bonds

Covalent bonds form when atoms share electrons to fill their valence shells. The way those shared electrons are pulled depends on electronegativity, which is an atom's tendency to attract electrons in a bond. That difference also helps explain why some molecules are polar and others are nonpolar. Atoms with similar electronegativities form nonpolar covalent bonds. In these bonds, electrons are shared equally, so there is no charge across the molecule. When two atoms have different...

hydrogen bonds

Hydrogen Bonding and DNA Stability

Hydrogen bonding helps explain why some molecules stick together more strongly than others. A hydrogen bond forms when a weakly positive hydrogen atom, already bonded to an electronegative atom, is attracted to another electronegative atom on a nearby polar molecule. Common examples include water, hydrogen fluoride, and ammonia. This attraction happens because hydrogen has a much lower electronegativity than atoms such as fluorine, oxygen, and nitrogen. The electronegativity difference, along...

ions, molecules, and compounds

Atomic Charges, Bonds, and Compounds

Atoms can gain or lose electrons during chemical reactions and become ions. An ion is an atom with an electrical charge. This charge is positive or negative, and it often helps the atom reach a full valence shell. Some atoms are more likely to donate electrons, while others are more likely to accept them. Potassium is one example. It has atomic number 19 and one electron in its valence shell, so it is likely to donate that electron and become a slightly positive ion called a cation. Fluorine...

states of matter

Solids, Liquids, Gases, and Plasma

Solids, liquids, gases, and plasma are the main forms of matter described here. Solids are rigid and keep a definite shape. Liquids flow and take the shape of their container, although gravity gives the surface a flat or slightly curved top. Solids and liquids also have volumes that stay nearly the same even when pressure changes. Gases behave differently from solids and liquids. A gas takes both the shape and the volume of its container. In matter with this behavior, the particles are far...

colloids and suspensions

Suspensions, Sedimentation, and Colloids

Suspensions and colloids are two common kinds of mixtures seen in everyday life. Mud and water, flour and water, and tempera paint are suspensions. These mixtures are heterogeneous, which means their particles are not spread out evenly. The particles are relatively large and can be seen with the naked eye or a magnifying glass. Suspension particles make mixtures cloudy, and they settle out after mixing. The settling of particles in a suspension is called sedimentation. A blood test can measure...

introduction to chemical reactions

Chemical Reaction Basics and Equilibrium

Chemical reactions start with reactants and end with products. Reactants are the substances that enter a reaction, and products are the new substances that form. For example, sodium and chloride ions are the reactants in the formation of table salt. Chemical reactions follow the law of conservation of mass. Matter is not created or destroyed during the reaction. That means the atoms and elements in the reactants are still present in the products, and nothing new appears in the products that...

types of chemical reactions: anabolic and catabolic

types-of-chemical-reactions-anabolic-and-catabolic

Anabolism, Catabolism, and ATP Use

Anabolism and catabolism are the two main kinds of metabolic reactions in the body. Metabolism is the total set of anabolic and catabolic reactions that keep life running. These reactions follow the first law of thermodynamics, which says energy cannot be created or destroyed. It can only change form. Anabolism builds larger, more complex molecules from smaller ones. These anabolic, or biosynthesis, reactions need energy in the form of ATP. They join monosaccharides into polysaccharides, fatty...

types of chemical reactions: exchange and reversible

Exchange reactions and reversible reactions are two important ideas in chemistry. In an exchange reaction, synthesis and decomposition happen at the same time. Chemical bonds are both formed and broken. These reactions can absorb chemical energy, store it, and release it. A special type of exchange reaction is the oxidation-reduction reaction, or redox reaction. In a redox reaction, electrons move from one compound to another. The electrons often come from hydrogen atoms, which contain one...

energy transfer in chemical reactions

Chemical Energy and Reaction Types

Chemical reactions depend on energy transfer, chemical bonds, and the way matter collides. A reaction needs enough energy for particles to meet with the right force and precision. That energy can break old bonds and help form new ones. Kinetic energy is the energy of motion. A person lifting a brick uses kinetic energy to move the brick into place on a wall. Once the wall is built, it stores potential energy, which is the energy of position or structure. If the wall falls, that stored energy...

factors influencing the rate of chemical reactions

factors-influencing-the-rate-of-chemical-reactions

Chemical Reaction Rates and Catalysts

Chemical reaction rates depend on how often particles collide and whether those collisions have enough energy to start a reaction. That starting energy is called activation energy. Factors that affect reaction rate either lower that energy or make successful collisions more likely. Concentration and pressure can speed reactions up because they put more particles in the same space. When more particles are present, they are more likely to bump into one another. Chemists can also increase...

acids, bases and neutralization reactions

How pH Affects Cells and Digestion

Acids, bases, and pH help control how cells and body systems work. In biology, pH can strongly affect enzymes, proteins, and nucleic acids. Enzymes work best within a certain pH range, and pH changes can alter their structure or denature them, which changes how they function. Acids release hydrogen ions, or H+, in solution. A hydrogen ion is a proton, so it is very reactive in chemical reactions. Strong acids release all of their H+ in water and ionize completely. Hydrochloric acid (HCl) is a...

key terms and concepts

Learn how redox reactions move electrons, how oxidation and reduction work together, and how reversible reactions reach equilibrium in chemistry and blood.

Electron Transfer and Chemical Equilibrium | JoVE K12

anatomy and physiology

JoVE Core Anatomy and Physiology showcases the anatomical and physiological details of the human body in comprehensive, clear, and engaging video animations. This collection of lessons focuses on the structures, components, functions, and requirements of the human body. It is complemented by scientist-in-action videos that demonstrate the application of this knowledge in real-world medical and research settings.

Louisiana Student Standards for Science

High School

Matter And Its Interactions

HS-PS1-6

Tennessee Academic Standards

Matter and Its Interactions

CHEM1.PS1.4

Alabama Course of Study Science

Matter and Its Interactions: Energy

9-12.C.3.3.b

Next Generation Science Standards

Physical Science

HS-PS1-4

south-carolina-college-and-career-ready-science-standards

South Carolina College and Career Ready Science Standards

C-PS1-2

C-PS1-6

Scientific Laws and Theories

Scientific Laws

In science, a law is defined as a concise, verbal or mathematical, statement that summarizes a vast number of experimental observations. ...

The Scientific Method

Chemistry is an empirical science. Scientists often pose questions to understand the chemistry in everyday life and seek answers to these questions. To ...

Classifying Matter by State

Chemistry is the study of matter and the changes it undergoes. Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space. Matter is all around us; the air, ...

Classifying Matter by Composition

Matter: Pure Substances and Mixtures
According to its composition, the matter can be classified into two broad categories &mdash; pure substances and ...

The Atomic Theory of Matter

The earliest recorded discussion of the basic structure of matter comes from ancient Greek philosophers. Leucippus and Democritus argued that all matter ...

Subatomic Particles

Dalton was only partially correct about the particles that make up matter. All matter is composed of atoms, and atoms are composed of three smaller ...

Elements: Chemical Symbols and Isotopes

A chemical symbol is an abbreviation used to indicate an element or an atom of an element. For example, the symbol for mercury is Hg. The same symbol is ...

Use models to explain how the scientific understanding of atomic structure has evolved.

PS.Chm.1.1

Radioactivity and Nuclear Equations

Nuclear chemistry is the study of reactions that involve changes in nuclear structure. The nucleus of an atom is composed of protons and, except for ...

Types of Radioactivity

The most common types of radioactivity are &#945; decay, &#946; decay, &#947; decay, neutron emission, and electron capture.
Alpha (&#945;) decay is the ...

Nuclear Stability

Protons and neutrons, collectively called nucleons, are packed together tightly in a nucleus. With a radius of about 10&#8722;15 meters, a nucleus is ...

Nuclear Binding Energy

The difference between the calculated and experimentally measured masses is known as the mass defect of the atom. In the case of helium-4, the mass defect ...

Radioactive Decay and Radiometric Dating

Radioactivity is a spontaneous disintegration of an unstable nuclide and is a random process, as all the nuclei in the sample do not decay simultaneously. ...

Nuclear Fission

Many heavier elements with smaller binding energies per nucleon can decompose into more stable elements that have intermediate mass numbers and larger ...

Nuclear Power

Controlled nuclear fission reactions are used to generate electricity. Any nuclear reactor that produces power via the fission of uranium or plutonium by ...

Nuclear Fusion

The process of converting very light nuclei into heavier nuclei is also accompanied by the conversion of mass into large amounts of energy, a process ...

Nuclear Transmutation

Nuclear transmutation is the conversion of one nuclide into another. It can occur by the radioactive decay of a nucleus, or the reaction of a nucleus with ...

Use models to compare nuclear reactions including alpha decay, beta decay and gamma decay; nuclear fusion and nuclear fission.

PS.Chm.1.2

Atomic Orbitals

An atomic orbital represents the three-dimensional regions in an atom where an electron has the highest probability to reside. The radial distribution ...

The Pauli Exclusion Principle

The arrangement of electrons in the orbitals of an atom is called its electron configuration. We describe an electron configuration with a symbol that ...

The Energies of Atomic Orbitals

In an atom, the negatively charged electrons are attracted to the positively charged nucleus. In a multielectron atom, electron-electron repulsions are ...

The Aufbau Principle and Hund's Rule

To determine the electron configuration for any particular atom, we can build the structures in the order of atomic numbers. Beginning with hydrogen, and ...

electron-configuration-of-multielectron-atoms

Electron Configuration of Multielectron Atoms

The alkali metal sodium (atomic number 11) has one more electron than the neon atom. This electron must go into the lowest-energy subshell available, the ...

Use models to explain how electrons are distributed in atoms.

PS.Chm.1.3

Periodic Classification of the Elements

The periodic table arranges atoms based on increasing atomic number so that elements with the same chemical properties recur periodically. When their ...

The Periodic Table

As early chemists discovered more elements, they realized that various elements could be grouped by their similar chemical behaviors. One such grouping ...

Atomic Mass

Atoms &mdash; and the protons, neutrons, and electrons that compose them &mdash; are extremely small. For example, a carbon atom weighs less than 2 ...

Molar Mass

The identity of a substance is defined not only by the types of atoms or ions it contains but by the quantity of each type of atom or ion. For example, ...

Use the Periodic Table as a model to predict the relative properties of elements based on the pattern of valence electrons in the outermost energy levels of atoms.

PS.Chm.2.1

atomic-radii-and-effective-nuclear-charge

Atomic Radii and Effective Nuclear Charge

The elements in groups of the periodic table exhibit similar chemical behavior. This similarity occurs because the members of a group have the same number ...

Ionic Radii

Ionic radius is the measure used to describe the size of an ion. A cation always has fewer electrons and the same number of protons as the parent atom; it ...

Ionization Energy

The amount of energy required to remove the most loosely bound electron from a gaseous atom in its ground state is called its first ionization energy ...

Electron Affinity

The electron affinity (EA) is the energy change for adding an electron to a gaseous atom to form an anion (negative ion).



This process can be either ...

Construct an explanation to infer the atomic size, reactivity, electronegativity, and ionization energy of an element based on its position in the Periodic Table.

PS.Chm.2.2

Types of Chemical Bonds

Chemical bonding theories were pioneered by American chemist Gilbert&#xA0;N. Lewis. He developed a model called the Lewis model to explain the type and ...

Lewis Symbols and the Octet Rule

Chemical bonds are complex interactions between two or more atoms or ions, which reduce the potential energy of the molecule. Gilbert N. Lewis developed a ...

Ionic Bonding and Electron Transfer

Ions are atoms or molecules bearing an electrical charge. A cation (a positive ion) forms when a neutral atom loses one or more electrons from its valence ...

The Born-Haber Cycle

Lattice Energy&#xA0;

An ionic compound is stable because of the electrostatic attraction between its positive and negative ions. The lattice energy of a ...

trends-in-lattice-energy-ion-size-and-charge

Trends in Lattice Energy: Ion Size and Charge

An ionic compound is stable because of the electrostatic attraction between its positive and negative ions. The lattice energy of a compound is a measure ...

Covalent Bonding and Lewis Structures

Compared to ionic bonds, which results from the transfer of electrons between metallic and nonmetallic atoms, covalent bonds result from the mutual ...

Electronegativity

Whether a bond is nonpolar or polar covalent is determined by a property of the bonding atoms called electronegativity.&#xA0;

Electronegativity values of ...

bond-polarity-dipole-moment-and-percent-ionic-character

Bond Polarity, Dipole Moment, and Percent Ionic Character

Bond Polarity

The absolute value of the difference in electronegativity (&Delta;EN) of two bonded atoms provides a rough measure of the polarity to be ...

Analyze and interpret data to explain the mechanisms and properties of the two main types of intramolecular (ionic and covalent) bonds.

PS.Chm.3.1

Analyze the structure of atoms and isotopes.

Electron Transfer and Chemical Equilibrium

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