G Protein-Coupled Receptors or GPCRs are membrane-bound receptors that transiently associate with heterotrimeric G proteins and induce an appropriate…

Heterotrimeric G proteins are guanine nucleotide-binding proteins. As the name suggests, heterotrimeric G proteins are composed of three subunits:…

G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) signaling plays a crucial role in cell functioning. GPCR desensitization is an equally essential process. It allows…

GPCRs are primarily responsible for our sense of smell, taste, and vision.  The binding of a sensory stimulus activates GPCR to stimulate…

Some GPCRs transmit signals through adenylyl cyclase (AC), a transmembrane enzyme. AC helps synthesize second messenger cyclic adenosine…

Cyclic Adenosine Monophosphate (cAMP) is an essential second messenger that activates protein kinase A (PKA) and regulates various biological…

Membrane lipids such as phosphatidylinositol (PI) are precursors for several membrane-bound and soluble second messengers. Specific kinases…

Calcium is an essential signaling molecule required for various cellular functions. Calcium pumps and ion channels on cell and organellar membranes,…

Calmodulin (CaM) is a calcium-binding protein in eukaryotes that controls various calcium-regulated cellular processes. It has four calcium-binding…

Nitric oxide (NO), an inorganic gas, acts as a potent second messenger in most animal and plant tissues. NO diffuses out of the cells that…

For more than 20 years, reverse pharmacology has been the preeminent strategy to discover the activating ligands of orphan G protein-coupled…

G-Protein-Coupled Receptors (GPCRs) are a large family of transmembrane receptors that play critical roles in normal cellular physiology and…

Nitric oxide (NO) is one of the main regulator molecules in vascular homeostasis and also a neurotransmitter. Enzymatically produced NO is oxidized…