Chapter 5
Cells and their Components
Cells are the smallest and basic units of life, whether it is a single cell that forms the entire organism, e.g., in a bacterium, or trillions of…
The concept of a cell started with microscopic observations of dead cork tissue by Robert Hooke in 1665. Hooke coined the term "cell" based…
The nucleus is a membrane-bound organelle that acts as a control center in a eukaryotic cell. It contains chromosomal DNA, which controls gene…
Human DNA is almost two meters long. However, it is compressed inside a tiny nucleus measuring only a few microns in diameter. To make this degree of…
Each human somatic cell contains 6 billion base pairs of DNA. Each base pair is 0.34 nm long, meaning each diploid cell contains a staggering 2…
The endoplasmic reticulum or ER makes up for more than half of the membranes in a cell and accounts for 10% of total cell volume. It is also the…
Lysosomes are membrane-enclosed spherical sacs derived from the Golgi apparatus. The most important function of the lysosome is degrading…
Mitochondria are eukaryotic cellular organelles that are known to produce energy through a process called oxidative phosphorylation. Besides their…
Peroxisomes are specialized organelles present in fungi, plant, and animal cells. It can vary in number, size, morphology, and activity depending on…
Ribosomes translate genetic information encoded by messenger RNA (mRNA) into proteins. Both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells have ribosomes. Cells…
Eukaryotic cells can degrade proteins through several pathways. One of the most important among these is the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway. It helps…
Overview of the Cytoskeleton
The cytoskeleton is a network of protein filaments present within the cell, having three distinct filaments…
Microtubules are thick hollow cylindrical proteins that help form the cytoskeleton. Microtubules have varied roles in the cell. These filaments help…
The ciliary structures were first seen in 1647 by Antonie Leeuwenhoek while observing the protozoans. In lower organisms, these appendages are…
CRISPR-Mediated Reorganization of Chromatin Loop Structure
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Recent studies have clearly shown that long-range, three-dimensional chromatin looping interactions play a significant role in the regulation of gene…
Core histone octamers that are repetitively spaced along a DNA molecule are called nucleosomal arrays. Nucleosomal arrays are obtained in one of two…