Name: electron shells and discovery
Uploaded: 2023-06-23T15:38:43.000Z
Duration: 1 min 9 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

Louisiana Student Standards for Science

High School

Chemistry

Matter And Its Interactions

HS-PS1-1

Electron Behavior

Elektrony to maleńkie, ujemnie naładowane cząstki, które istnieją w chmurze elektronów wokół dodatnio naładowanego jądra. Wewnątrz chmury elektrony znajdują się w odrębnych obszarach zwanych powłokami lub poziomami energetycznymi.
Poziomy energetyczne są często wizualizowane za pomocą uproszczonego modelu Bohra lub modelu planetarnego, gdzie są one reprezentowane jako pierścienie wokół jądra, chociaż w rzeczywistości mają one złożone kształty.
Elektrony w tych powłokach mają coraz większą energię w miarę oddalania się od jądra.
Na pierwszym poziomie energetycznym mogą znajdować się maksymalnie dwa elektrony. Druga powłoka może pomieścić maksymalnie osiem elektronów. Dodatkowe elektrony w atomie wypełniają coraz wyższe poziomy energetyczne.
Elektrony w najbardziej zewnętrznej zajętej powłoce nazywane są elektronami walencyjnymi i określają właściwości chemiczne pierwiastka.
Elektrony walencyjne mogą być współdzielone przez atomy w celu utworzenia wiązań kowalencyjnych lub przenoszone w celu utworzenia wiązań jonowych.

zachowanie elektronów

Elektrony to negatywnie naładowane podcząsteczki przyciągane i krążące wokół dodatnio naładowanego jądra atomu. Zajmują one przestrzenie związane z poziomami energetycznymi, nazywanymi powłokami, i są dalej zorganizowane w podpowłoki i orbitalne w ramach każdej powłoki.

Elektrony krążą wokół jądra. Znajdują się w określonych lokalizacjach poza jądrem. Powłoka, w której przebywa elektron, wskazuje ogólny poziom energetyczny elektronu: te bliżej jądra mają mniej energii, podczas gdy te bardziej odległe mają więcej energii. Podpowłoka dokładniej opisuje lokalizację i poziom energetyczny elektronu, a orbital opisuje kształt obszaru prawdopodobieństwa, w którym elektron krąży wokół jądra.

Elektrony, które są najbliżej jądra, mają najmniejszą ilość energii, a w miarę zwiększania odległości od jądra, ilość energii, którą nosi elektron, również się zwiększa. Im dalej od jądra, tym więcej miejsca dla elektronów do orbitowania, dzięki czemu zewnętrzne powłoki mogą pomieścić więcej elektronów niż wewnętrzne powłoki. Najbardziej zewnętrzne elektrony atomu znajdują się w powłoce walencyjnej i nazywane są elektronami walencyjnymi. Te elektrony mogą tworzyć wiązania jonowe i kowalencyjne z innymi atomami.

Odkrycie elektronu

Pod koniec lat 90. XIX wieku J.J. Thomson przeprowadził serię eksperymentów z użyciem lamp katodowych, co doprowadziło do odkrycia pierwszej podcząsteczki - elektronu. Lampa katodowa to szklana rurka z dwoma elektrodami podłączonymi do źródła zasilania dostarczającego energię elektryczną. Wewnątrz rurki próżnia usuwa większość powietrza. Gdy napięcie jest stosowane na elektrody, wiązka cząstek przemieszcza się od naładowanej negatywnie katody do naładowanej dodatnio anody. Anoda ma małe otwory, przez które promienie mogą przechodzić. Pokrycie fosforowe na przeciwnym końcu rurki świeci, gdy promienie katody uderzają w nią.

Thomson skierował wiązkę katodową między dwie metalowe płytki, jedną o dodatnim ładunku, a drugą o ujemnym ładunku, i zmierzył pozycję wiązki na końcu rurki. Gdy wiązka przechodziła między dwiema płytami, była odchylana od płytki naładowanej ujemnie, gięła się w kierunku płytki naładowanej dodatnio. Ponieważ podobne ładunki odpychają się, a przeciwne ładunki przyciągają się, oznaczało to, że cząsteczki w wiązce katodowej posiadają ładunek ujemny.

Dalsze eksperymenty, mające na celu obliczenie stosunku masy do ładunku cząsteczek katodowych, ujawniły, że masa każdej cząsteczki o ładunku ujemnym wynosi około 1/2000 masy dowolnego znanego atomu. W wyniku tego Thomson doszedł do wniosku, że w dowolnym atomie musi być wiele elektronów. Późniejsze odkrycie protonów i neutronów wyjaśniło rozkład masy atomu i ogólny ładunek neutralny.

Ten tekst jest adaptacją z: <a href="https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-2e/pages/6-3-development-of-quantum-theory#0">Openstax, Chemistry 2e, Section 6.3: Development of quantum theory</a>.

Zachowanie elektronów

Elektrony to ujemnie naładowane cząstki subatomowe przyciągane i krążące wokół dodatnio naładowanego jądra atomu. Mieszkają w przestrzeniach ...

Education

JoVE Core

Anatomy and Physiology

Anatomia i fizjologia

Unit 1

Jednostka 1

Fundamentals of Chemistry

Podstawy chemii

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

Kluczowe terminy i pojęcia

electron shells and discovery

Electrons are negatively charged subatomic particles that stay near the positively charged nucleus of an atom. They occupy spaces linked to energy levels called shells. They are also arranged into subshells and orbitals within each shell.

An electron’s shell shows its general energy level. Electrons closer to the nucleus have less energy, while electrons farther away have more energy. The outer shells have more space, so they can hold more electrons than the inner shells.

Subshells describe an electron’s location and energy more precisely. Orbitals describe the shape of an area of probability where an electron may move around the nucleus. The outermost electrons are found in the valence shell and are called valence electrons. These electrons can form ionic and covalent bonds with other atoms.

J. J. Thomson discovered the electron in the late 1890s through experiments with cathode ray tubes. A cathode ray tube is a glass tube with two electrodes, a power source, and a vacuum that removes most of the air. When voltage is applied, a beam of particles travels from the negatively charged cathode to the positively charged anode, and a phosphorus coating glows when the beam strikes it.

Thomson also sent the cathode ray between two metal plates, one positive and one negative. The ray bent away from the negatively charged plate and toward the positively charged plate. This showed that the particles carried a negative charge, since like charges repel and opposite charges attract.

Further experiments showed that each particle had a mass about 1/2000 of the mass of any known atom. Thomson concluded that atoms must contain many electrons. Later, the discovery of protons and neutrons helped explain how an atom’s mass is spread out and why its overall charge is neutral.

Electron Shells and Discovery

what is matter?

Matter, Mass, and Weight Basics

Matter is the substance that makes up the universe, from a grain of sand to a star. Scientists define matter as anything that occupies space and has mass. Mass is the amount of matter in an object, while weight depends on gravity. Mass stays the same whether an object is on Earth or in the zero-gravity environment of outer space. Weight changes when gravity changes. An object weighs more where gravity is stronger and less where gravity is weaker. A piece of cheese that weighs a pound on Earth...

the periodic table and organismal elements

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Organismal Elements in the Periodic Table

The periodic table helps identify the elements that make up living organisms. Biology groups these as organismal elements because they are the chemical building blocks of life. These elements are found in different amounts in the body. Some are present in large quantities, while others are needed only in small amounts. The video connects the periodic table to the elements that organisms actually use. Understanding organismal elements helps students link chemistry to biology. It shows how...

atomic structure

From Atomos to the Modern Atom

Atoms are the tiny building blocks of matter, and ideas about them go back to the Greek philosopher Democritus. He suggested that everything on Earth is made of atomos, a Greek word meaning "indivisible." That idea later led to the modern word atom. In the 19th century, John Dalton developed an atomic theory that is still largely correct today. He proposed five key ideas. All matter is made of tiny particles called atoms. Atoms of the same element are alike, and atoms of different elements are...

chemical symbols

Chemical Symbols and Element Names

Chemical symbols are short abbreviations that stand for an element or a single atom of that element. Mercury, for example, has the symbol Hg. The same symbol can point to one atom of mercury in the microscopic domain or to a sample labeled as many atoms of mercury in the macroscopic domain. Many symbols come from the element’s common name. Others are shortened from a name in another language. Most chemical symbols use one or two letters. For a few elements with atomic numbers above 112,...

atomic number and mass number

Atomic Identity, Mass, and Isotopes

Atomic identity depends on the number of protons in the nucleus, and mass depends on protons and neutrons together. The number of protons is the atomic number, or Z. It defines the element. For example, any atom with six protons is carbon, no matter how many neutrons or electrons it has. In a neutral atom, the number of protons equals the number of electrons. Because of that, the atomic number also tells you the number of electrons in the atom. The total number of protons and neutrons is...

atomic weight

Atomic Mass and Mole Calculations

Atomic mass and mole calculations help explain how much matter is in atoms and compounds. Protons and neutrons have about the same mass, about 1.67 × 10 -24 grams. Scientists define that mass as one atomic mass unit, or amu, also called one Dalton. Electrons are much lighter than protons. They weigh only 9.11 × 10 -28 grams, or about 1/1800 of an atomic mass unit. Because of that small mass, electrons do not add much to an element’s overall atomic mass. When chemists calculate atomic mass,...

isotopes and radioisotopes

Radioisotopes in Medicine and Imaging

Radioisotopes are unstable isotopes that can be used to study the body and treat disease. An isotope is an atom of the same element that has a different mass because it contains a different number of neutrons. It still has the same number of protons, so it remains chemically identical. English chemist Frederick Soddy explained this idea in the early 1900s and later received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1921. Some isotopes have more neutrons than usual and are called heavy isotopes. These...

electron behavior

Electrons are negatively charged subatomic particles that stay near the positively charged nucleus of an atom. They occupy spaces linked to energy levels called shells. They are also arranged into subshells and orbitals within each shell. An electron’s shell shows its general energy level. Electrons closer to the nucleus have less energy, while electrons farther away have more energy. The outer shells have more space, so they can hold more electrons than the inner shells. Subshells describe...

introduction to chemical bonds

How Atoms Bond to Reach Stability

Atoms bond to become more stable, and their outermost electrons play the biggest role in that process. The inner electron shell can hold two electrons. The next two shells can each hold eight electrons. This is called the octet rule. It states that, except for the innermost shell, atoms are most stable when their valence shell, or outer shell, has eight electrons. When atoms do not have enough electrons to fill that outer shell, they form chemical bonds with other atoms. A chemical bond is the...

ionic bonds

Ionic Bonds and Charge Transfer

Ionic bonds form when atoms transfer electrons and become charged particles. A positive ion and a negative ion attract each other because opposite charges pull together. This type of bonding helps explain how some substances are held together. In many cases, an atom loses one or more electrons, while another atom gains them. The atom that loses electrons becomes a cation, which is a positively charged ion. The atom that gains electrons becomes an anion, which is a negatively charged ion. The...

covalent bonds

Polar and Nonpolar Covalent Bonds

Covalent bonds form when atoms share electrons to fill their valence shells. The way those shared electrons are pulled depends on electronegativity, which is an atom's tendency to attract electrons in a bond. That difference also helps explain why some molecules are polar and others are nonpolar. Atoms with similar electronegativities form nonpolar covalent bonds. In these bonds, electrons are shared equally, so there is no charge across the molecule. When two atoms have different...

hydrogen bonds

Hydrogen Bonding and DNA Stability

Hydrogen bonding helps explain why some molecules stick together more strongly than others. A hydrogen bond forms when a weakly positive hydrogen atom, already bonded to an electronegative atom, is attracted to another electronegative atom on a nearby polar molecule. Common examples include water, hydrogen fluoride, and ammonia. This attraction happens because hydrogen has a much lower electronegativity than atoms such as fluorine, oxygen, and nitrogen. The electronegativity difference, along...

ions, molecules, and compounds

Atomic Charges, Bonds, and Compounds

Atoms can gain or lose electrons during chemical reactions and become ions. An ion is an atom with an electrical charge. This charge is positive or negative, and it often helps the atom reach a full valence shell. Some atoms are more likely to donate electrons, while others are more likely to accept them. Potassium is one example. It has atomic number 19 and one electron in its valence shell, so it is likely to donate that electron and become a slightly positive ion called a cation. Fluorine...

states of matter

Solids, Liquids, Gases, and Plasma

Solids, liquids, gases, and plasma are the main forms of matter described here. Solids are rigid and keep a definite shape. Liquids flow and take the shape of their container, although gravity gives the surface a flat or slightly curved top. Solids and liquids also have volumes that stay nearly the same even when pressure changes. Gases behave differently from solids and liquids. A gas takes both the shape and the volume of its container. In matter with this behavior, the particles are far...

colloids and suspensions

Suspensions, Sedimentation, and Colloids

Suspensions and colloids are two common kinds of mixtures seen in everyday life. Mud and water, flour and water, and tempera paint are suspensions. These mixtures are heterogeneous, which means their particles are not spread out evenly. The particles are relatively large and can be seen with the naked eye or a magnifying glass. Suspension particles make mixtures cloudy, and they settle out after mixing. The settling of particles in a suspension is called sedimentation. A blood test can measure...

introduction to chemical reactions

Chemical Reaction Basics and Equilibrium

Chemical reactions start with reactants and end with products. Reactants are the substances that enter a reaction, and products are the new substances that form. For example, sodium and chloride ions are the reactants in the formation of table salt. Chemical reactions follow the law of conservation of mass. Matter is not created or destroyed during the reaction. That means the atoms and elements in the reactants are still present in the products, and nothing new appears in the products that...

types of chemical reactions: anabolic and catabolic

types-of-chemical-reactions-anabolic-and-catabolic

Anabolism, Catabolism, and ATP Use

Anabolism and catabolism are the two main kinds of metabolic reactions in the body. Metabolism is the total set of anabolic and catabolic reactions that keep life running. These reactions follow the first law of thermodynamics, which says energy cannot be created or destroyed. It can only change form. Anabolism builds larger, more complex molecules from smaller ones. These anabolic, or biosynthesis, reactions need energy in the form of ATP. They join monosaccharides into polysaccharides, fatty...

types of chemical reactions: exchange and reversible

types-of-chemical-reactions-exchange-and-reversible

Electron Transfer and Chemical Equilibrium

Exchange reactions and reversible reactions are two important ideas in chemistry. In an exchange reaction, synthesis and decomposition happen at the same time. Chemical bonds are both formed and broken. These reactions can absorb chemical energy, store it, and release it. A special type of exchange reaction is the oxidation-reduction reaction, or redox reaction. In a redox reaction, electrons move from one compound to another. The electrons often come from hydrogen atoms, which contain one...

energy transfer in chemical reactions

Chemical Energy and Reaction Types

Chemical reactions depend on energy transfer, chemical bonds, and the way matter collides. A reaction needs enough energy for particles to meet with the right force and precision. That energy can break old bonds and help form new ones. Kinetic energy is the energy of motion. A person lifting a brick uses kinetic energy to move the brick into place on a wall. Once the wall is built, it stores potential energy, which is the energy of position or structure. If the wall falls, that stored energy...

factors influencing the rate of chemical reactions

factors-influencing-the-rate-of-chemical-reactions

Chemical Reaction Rates and Catalysts

Chemical reaction rates depend on how often particles collide and whether those collisions have enough energy to start a reaction. That starting energy is called activation energy. Factors that affect reaction rate either lower that energy or make successful collisions more likely. Concentration and pressure can speed reactions up because they put more particles in the same space. When more particles are present, they are more likely to bump into one another. Chemists can also increase...

acids, bases and neutralization reactions

How pH Affects Cells and Digestion

Acids, bases, and pH help control how cells and body systems work. In biology, pH can strongly affect enzymes, proteins, and nucleic acids. Enzymes work best within a certain pH range, and pH changes can alter their structure or denature them, which changes how they function. Acids release hydrogen ions, or H+, in solution. A hydrogen ion is a proton, so it is very reactive in chemical reactions. Strong acids release all of their H+ in water and ionize completely. Hydrochloric acid (HCl) is a...

key terms and concepts

Explore how electrons are arranged in shells, subshells, and orbitals, and how J. J. Thomson discovered the electron using cathode ray tubes.

Electron Shells and Discovery | JoVE K12

anatomy and physiology

JoVE Core Anatomy and Physiology showcases the anatomical and physiological details of the human body in comprehensive, clear, and engaging video animations. This collection of lessons focuses on the structures, components, functions, and requirements of the human body. It is complemented by scientist-in-action videos that demonstrate the application of this knowledge in real-world medical and research settings.

motion-and-stability-forces-and-interactions

Motion And Stability: Forces And Interactions

HS-PS2-6

south-carolina-college-and-career-ready-science-standards

South Carolina College and Career Ready Science Standards

Physics

Motion and Stability: Forces and Interactions

P-PS2-6.

The Periodic Table

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Periodic Classification of the Elements

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The Periodic Table And Organismal Elements

Atomic Structure

The Greek philosopher Democritus proposed that everything on Earth is made up of tiny particles called atomos, Greek for &#34;indivisible,&#34; from which ...

Electron Configurations

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Electronic Structure of Atoms


An atom comprises protons and neutrons, which are contained inside the dense, central&#160;core called the nucleus, with electrons present around the ...

electron-configuration-of-multielectron-atoms

Electron Configuration of Multielectron Atoms

The alkali metal sodium (atomic number 11) has one more electron than the neon atom. This electron must go into the lowest-energy subshell available, the ...

atomic-radii-and-effective-nuclear-charge

Atomic Radii and Effective Nuclear Charge

The elements in groups of the periodic table exhibit similar chemical behavior. This similarity occurs because the members of a group have the same number ...

The Aufbau Principle and Hund's Rule

To determine the electron configuration for any particular atom, we can build the structures in the order of atomic numbers. Beginning with hydrogen, and ...

Coulomb's Law

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Electric Charges

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Sources and Properties of Electric Charge

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Types of Forces

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Electric Fields

Source: Yong P. Chen, PhD, Department of Physics &#38; Astronomy, College of Science, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN
An electric field is generated ...

Intermolecular Forces

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Van der Waals Interactions

Atoms and molecules interact with each other through intermolecular forces. These electrostatic forces arise from attractive or repulsive interactions ...

Chemical Bonds


Atoms participate in a chemical bond formation&#160;to acquire a completed valence-shell electron configuration similar to that of the noble gas nearest ...

Electrons are negatively charged subatomic particles attracted to and orbit around the positively-charged nucleus of an atom. They reside in spaces ...

Subatomic Particles

Dalton was only partially correct about the particles that make up matter. All matter is composed of atoms, and atoms are composed of three smaller ...

Ions and Ionic Charges

In ordinary chemical reactions, the nucleus &mdash; which contains the protons and neutrons of each atom and thus identifies the element &mdash; remains ...

Use the periodic table as a model to predict the relative properties of elements based on the patterns of electrons in the outermost energy level and the composition of the nucleus of atoms.  Clarification Statement: Chemistry: Examples of properties that could be predicted from patterns could include reactivity of metals, types of bonds formed, numbers of bonds formed, atomic radius, atomic mass, or reactions with oxygen. Emphasis is on main group elements and qualitative understanding of the relative trends of ionization energy and electronegativity.

Properties of Transition Metals

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The Atomic Theory of Matter

The earliest recorded discussion of the basic structure of matter comes from ancient Greek philosophers. Leucippus and Democritus argued that all matter ...

Chemical Reactions

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Chemical Equations

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Introduction to Chemical Reactions

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Temperature Dependence on Reaction Rate

The Collision Theory
Atoms, molecules, or ions must collide before they can react with each other. Atoms must be close together to form chemical bonds. ...

stoichiometry-product-yield-and-limiting-reactants

Stoichiometry, Product Yield, and Limiting Reactants

Source: Smaa Koraym at Johns Hopkins University, MD, USA

	Preparation of 25% v/v Ethylenediamine in Deionized WaterExpand
	Here, we show the laboratory ...

physical-and-chemical-properties-of-matter

Physical and Chemical Properties of Matter

The characteristics that enable us to distinguish one substance from another are called properties.

Physical Properties of Matter

A physical property is ...

Dynamic Equilibrium

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Construct and revise an explanation for the outcome of a simple chemical reaction based on the outermost electron states of atoms, trends in the periodic table, and knowledge of the patterns of chemical properties.  Clarification Statement: Chemistry: Examples of chemical reactions could include the reaction of sodium and chlorine, carbon and oxygen, or carbon and hydrogen. Reaction classification aids in the prediction of products (e.g. synthesis, decomposition, single displacement, double displacement, and acid-base).

HS-PS1-2

Intermolecular vs Intramolecular Forces

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comparison-between-electrical-and-gravitational-forces

Comparison Between Electrical And Gravitational Forces

There are four fundamental forces in nature: the gravitational force, the electromagnetic force, the strong nuclear force, and the weak nuclear force. To ...

intermolecular-forces-and-physical-properties

Intermolecular Forces and Physical Properties



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electric-field-of-two-equal-and-opposite-charges

Electric Field of Two Equal and Opposite Charges

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Electric Field

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Ionic Bonding and Electron Transfer

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Electric Dipoles and Dipole Moment

Consider two charges of equal magnitude but opposite signs. If they cannot be separated by an external electric field, the system is called a permanent ...

Plan and conduct an investigation to gather evidence to compare the structure of substances at the macroscale to infer the strength of electrical forces between particles.  Clarification Statement: Emphasis is on understanding the strengths of forces between particles, not on naming specific intermolecular forces (such as dipole-dipole). Examples of particles could include ions, atoms, molecules, and network solids (such as graphite). Examples of macro-properties of substances could include the melting point and boiling point, vapor pressure, and surface tension.

HS-PS1-3

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Bond Dissociation Energy and Activation Energy

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Bond Energies and Bond Lengths

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Coupled Reactions

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energy-diagrams-transition-states-and-intermediates

Energy Diagrams, Transition States, and Intermediates

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What is Metabolism?

Overview

Metabolism represents all of the chemical activity in a cell, including reactions that build molecules (anabolism) and those that break ...

Types of Chemical Reactions: Anabolic and Catabolic

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Develop a model to illustrate that the release or absorption of energy from a chemical reaction system depends upon the changes in total bond energy.  Clarification Statement: Emphasis is on the idea that a chemical reaction is a system that affects the energy change.  Examples of models could include molecular-level drawings and diagrams of reactions, graphs showing the relative energies of reactants and products, and representations showing energy is conserved.

HS-PS1-4

Electron Shells and Discovery

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