A Punnett square displays the possible genotypes offspring can inherit from two parental genotypes. If a trait’s inheritance pattern (e.g.,…

In the 1850s and 1860s, Gregor Mendel investigated inheritance by performing monohybrid crosses in pea plants. He crossed two plants that were…

To determine whether traits are inherited together or separately, Gregor Mendel crossed pea plants that differed in two traits. These parental…

Some of Mendel’s crosses examined three pairs of contrasting characteristics. Such a cross is called a trihybrid cross. A trihybrid cross is a…

While Mendel’s Law of Segregation states that the two alleles for one gene are separated into different gametes, a different question of how…

The chi-square test is a statistical hypothesis test. It is used to check whether there is a significant difference between an expected value and an…

A pedigree is a diagram displaying a family’s history of a trait. Analyzing pedigrees can reveal (1) whether a trait is dominant or…

Gregor Mendel's work (1822 - 1884) was primarily focused on pea plants. Through his initial experiments, he determined that every gene in a…

Lucien Cuénot discovered lethal alleles in 1905 while studying the inheritance of coat color in mice. The agouti gene is responsible for the…

When more than one gene is responsible for a given phenotype, the trait is considered polygenic. Human height is a polygenic trait. Studies have…

Although the genetic makeup of an organism plays a major role in determining the phenotype, there are also several environmental factors, such as…

Among mammals, the gender of an organism is determined by the sex chromosomes. Humans have two sex chromosomes, X and Y. Every human diploid cell has…

The Y chromosome is a sex chromosome found in several vertebrates and mammals, including humans. In addition to 22 pairs of autosomes, the human…

In most organisms, sex is determined by the ratio of X and Y chromosomes. However, in some organisms, such as Drosophila and C.elegans, sex is…

In most mammalian species, females have two X sex chromosomes and males have an X and Y. As a result, mutations on the X chromosome in females may be…

Like autosomes, sex chromosomes contain a variety of genes necessary for normal body function. When a mutation in one of these genes results in…

In animals, gender is determined by the number and type of sex chromosome. For example, human females have two X chromosomes, and males have one X…

The human X chromosome contains over ten times the number of genes as in the Y chromosome. Since males have only one X chromosome, and females have…

Multiple allelism describes genes that exist in three or more allelic forms. Although diploid organisms, like humans, normally possess only two…

Human blood is classified into different types based on the presence of antigens on the red blood cell's surface and antibodies in the plasma.…

Blood transfusion is a therapeutic measure to restore the blood volume after extensive blood loss due to an accident or a medical procedure. Blood…

Zebrafish mutant phenotypes are often incompletely penetrant, only manifesting in some mutants. Interesting phenotypes that inconsistently appear can…

Cervid phenotype can be placed into one of two categories: efficiency, which promotes survival over extravagant morphometric growth, and luxury,…

X chromosome inactivation (XCI) is the random silencing of one X chromosome in females to achieve gene dosage balance between the sexes. As a result,…