The ER, Golgi apparatus, endosomes, and lysosomes work in tandem to modify, sort, and package proteins and lipids. An integrated membrane trafficking…

Membrane-enclosed structures called vesicles transport proteins and lipids across the cell. The vesicles derive their cargo from the plasma membrane,…

Clathrin-coated vesicles use endocytosis to transport receptors and lysosomal hydrolases from the Golgi to the lysosome in the late secretory…

Phosphoinositides are a group of phospholipids containing a glycerol backbone with two fatty acid chains and a phosphate attached to a myoinositol…

Vesicles incorporate different coat protein subunits in different cell locations, which changes the properties of the coat, such as the shape and…

Vesicle budding is orchestrated by distinct cytosolic proteins such as adaptor proteins, coat proteins, and GTPases. To initiate vesicle budding,…

Rab proteins constitute the largest family of monomeric GTPases, of which 70 members are present in humans. Rab proteins and their effectors regulate…

Rab GTPases act in a regulated cascade during membrane fusion, helping the lipid bilayers mix. The Rab family of proteins are active when bound to…

Once a transport vesicle has recognized its target organelle, the vesicular membrane needs to fuse with the target membrane to unload the cargo.…

After budding out from the ER membrane, some COPII vesicles lose their coat and fuse with one another to form larger vesicles and interconnected…

In the secretory pathway, vesicles transport proteins from one cellular compartment to another in forward transport to deliver the protein to its…

Properly folded and assembled proteins are selectively packaged into vesicles that exit the ER. Motor proteins transport these vesicles to the Golgi…

Glycosylation, the most common post-translational modification for proteins, serves diverse functions. Adding sugars to proteins makes the proteins…

Glycans, a class of complex heterogeneous molecules, can be covalently attached to proteins to form glycosylated proteins that regulate various…

Protein glycosylation starts in the ER lumen and continues in the Golgi apparatus. Glycosyltransferases catalyze the addition of sugar molecules or…

Golgi matrix proteins are a group of highly dynamic proteins that maintain the stacked structure of Golgi. These proteins adapt to rapid…

While it is unclear how molecules move between adjacent Golgi cisternae, it is apparent that the molecules move from cis- cisterna, the entry face,…

Lysosomes are membrane-enclosed spherical sacs derived from the Golgi apparatus. The most important function of the lysosome is degrading…

Eukaryotic cells use different mechanisms to eliminate toxic waste obsolete and worn-out substances. Lysosomes play a pivotal role in this, and…

Autophagy is a self-digesting process by which a cell protects itself from threats both within and outside the cell, ranging from abnormal proteins…

Lysosomes are the site for the degradation of macromolecules and biological polymers released during membrane trafficking events such as secretory,…

Inositol phosphates and phosphoinositides regulate several cellular processes in eukaryotes, including gene expression, vesicle trafficking, signal…

Transport of proteins and membranes from the cell surface to the Golgi and beyond is essential for homeostasis, organelle identity and physiology. To…

Cells employ several methods for recycling unwanted proteins and other material, including lysosomal and non-lysosomal pathways. The main…