1.5:
Polar Covalent Bonds
Nonmetals have high ionization energies, making it difficult to transfer valence electrons from one atom to another. Hence, nonmetals tend to share valence electrons between atoms, forming covalent bonds.
The shared pair of electrons in the covalent bond is called a bonding pair. Any valence electrons that do not participate in bonding are called the lone pair, or nonbonding electrons.
According to the octet rule, when certain atoms have fewer than eight electrons in their valence shell, they react to form stable compounds by achieving the configuration of the nearest noble gas.
For example, in a molecule of ammonia, nitrogen requires three more electrons to reach its nearest noble gas configuration, or an octet, whereas, hydrogen needs one more electron to reach its nearest noble gas configuration, or a duet. Thus, the nitrogen atom forms single bonds with three hydrogen atoms.
On the other hand, the carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide molecules are held together by carbon–oxygen double and triple bonds, respectively. The formation of the double and triple bonds ensures that each of the constituent atoms achieves the nearest noble gas configuration.
When covalent bonds form between two atoms of different elements, the more electronegative atom attracts the electrons more strongly, forming a polar covalent bond. The ability of an atom to attract electrons towards itself is called electronegativity. The greater the difference in electronegativity, the more polar the bond will be.
The Pauling scale provides the electronegativity value for each element based on bond energy calculations. Nitrogen is more electronegative than carbon, which in turn is more electronegative than hydrogen.
Thus, in a covalent bond between carbon and nitrogen, the more electronegative nitrogen attracts the shared electrons towards itself, whereas, in a bond between carbon and hydrogen, the more electronegative carbon attracts the electron density away from the less electronegative hydrogen.
1.5:
Polar Covalent Bonds
Covalent bonds are formed between two atoms when both have similar tendencies to attract electrons to themselves (i.e., when both atoms have identical or fairly similar ionization energies and electron affinities). Nonmetal atoms frequently form covalent bonds with other nonmetal atoms. For example, the hydrogen molecule, H2, contains a covalent bond between its two hydrogen atoms. When two separate hydrogen atoms with a particular potential energy approach each other, their valence orbitals (1s) begin to overlap. The single electrons on each hydrogen atom then interact with both atomic nuclei, occupying the space around both atoms. The strong attraction of each shared electron to both nuclei stabilizes the system, and the potential energy decreases as the bond distance decreases. If the atoms continue to approach each other, the positive charges in the two nuclei begin to repel each other, and the potential energy increases. The bond length is determined by the distance at which the lowest potential energy is achieved. Whether a bond is nonpolar or polar covalent is determined by a property of the bonding atoms called electronegativity.
Electronegativity values of the elements were proposed by one of the most famous chemists of the twentieth century: Linus Pauling. Electronegativity is a measure of the tendency of an atom to attract electrons (or electron density) towards itself. Electronegativity determines how the shared electrons are distributed between the two atoms in a bond. The more strongly an atom attracts the electrons in its bonds, the larger its electronegativity. It describes how tightly an atom attracts electrons in a bond. It is a dimensionless quantity that is calculated, not measured. Pauling derived the first electronegativity values by comparing the amounts of energy required to break different types of bonds. Electrons in a polar covalent bond are shifted toward the more electronegative atom; thus, the more electronegative atom is the one with the partial negative charge. The greater the difference in electronegativity, the more polarized the electron distribution and the larger the partial charges of the atoms.