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Metal fatigue occurs under cyclic loading at stresses typically 30-40% of ultimate strength. Repeated stress cycles cause crack initiation and propagation perpendicular to principal tensile stress. After many cycles, cracks reach critical length and suddenly propagate at sound speed, causing immediate failure without significant prior warning or deformation.

The endurance limit is the maximum stress range below which a metal will not fail regardless of cycle count. Most ferrous alloys exhibit this threshold. In S-N curve testing, stress ranges below the endurance limit show no failure. Engineers use this value to design structures for infinite fatigue life, improving reliability by testing multiple specimens near the threshold stress range.

A rotating beam test applies cantilever bending loads to rotating specimens, creating full tension and compression cycles. Multiple specimens are tested at different stress ranges determined from yield strength percentages. Results plot stress range versus logarithmic cycles to failure, revealing the relationship between applied stress and fatigue life, establishing the material's fatigue characteristics.

Miner's rule predicts fatigue failure by summing damage fractions across multiple stress ranges. Each stress range's expected cycles are divided by cycles-to-failure for that range, then summed. If the total exceeds 1.0, fatigue failure is possible. Though lacking physical basis, it is useful for engineering design when structures experience variable cyclic loading histories.

Fatigue cracks typically initiate at angles to normal stress, then turn and grow perpendicular to principal tensile stress. Cracks propagate under tensile or shear stress but not under compressive stress. Initial growth produces characteristic beach marks on fracture surfaces. Once cracks reach critical length, they propagate rapidly at sound speed, causing sudden failure with characteristic rough fracture surfaces.

Fatigue resistance is affected by multiple factors including stress amplitude, mean stress, frequency, stress concentrations, material properties, surface conditions, grain size, temperature, and corrosion. Environmental conditions and combined stresses also play roles. This complexity underscores the need for routine inspection of structures subjected to repeated loadings like bridges, cranes, vehicles, and aircraft.

Laboratory testing establishes material fatigue characteristics through S-N curves and stress-strain characteristics of steels, enabling engineers to predict failure. Field monitoring detects crack propagation before catastrophic failure. The Silver Bridge collapse demonstrated that fatigue cracks can initiate from manufacturing flaws hidden from inspectors, making continuous assessment critical for public safety.