Elements are the smallest units of matter that cannot be broken down further by chemical processes. There are 118 known elements, but not all of…

Functional groups are a group of atoms with characteristic properties, which when linked to the carbon skeleton of a molecule, alter the properties…

Chemical bonding theories were pioneered by American chemist Gilbert N. Lewis. He developed a model called the Lewis model to explain the type…

Noncovalent attractions are associations within and between molecules that influence the shape and structural stability of complexes. These…

The word polymer is derived from the Greek words “poly” which means “many” and “mer” which means…

Lipids function as structural components of cellular membranes, in addition to acting as energy reservoirs and signaling molecules. They are thus…

Lipids include a diverse group of compounds that are largely nonpolar in nature. This is because they are hydrocarbons that include mostly nonpolar…

Carbohydrates are an essential part of the diet in humans and animals. Grains, fruits, and vegetables are natural sources of carbohydrates that…

Nucleic acids are the most important macromolecules for the continuity of life. They carry the cell's genetic blueprint and carry instructions…

Proteins are one of the most abundant organic molecules in living systems and have the most diverse range of functions of all macromolecules.…

pH plays a critical role in maintaining normal cellular activities. It helps maintain the structure and function of various proteins, dictates the…

The cell is chemically composed of water, organic molecules and inorganic ions. Water The polarity of the water molecule and its resulting hydrogen…

Heteroarylation introduces heteroaryl fragments to organic molecules. Despite the numerous available reactions reported for arylation via transition…

Cyanobacteria can actively secrete a wide range of biomolecules into the extracellular environment, such as heteropolysaccharides and proteins. The…

Mycobacteria species can differ from one another in the rate of growth, presence of pigmentation, the colony morphology displayed on solid media, as…