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Chapter 2

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Chapter 2

Chemistry of Life

Overview Elements are the smallest units of matter that cannot be broken down further by chemical processes. There are 118 known elements, but not all of …
Overview All matter is composed of atoms, the smallest individual units of elements. Each atom is made up of three subatomic particles: protons, …
Overview Electrons are negatively charged subatomic particles that are attracted to an orbit around the positively-charged nucleus of an atom. They reside …
Orbitals are the areas outside of the atomic nucleus where electrons are most likely to reside. They are characterized by different energy levels, shapes, …
Pure substances consist of only one type of matter. A pure substance can be an element or a compound. An element consists of only one type of atom, while …
Molecules have characteristic shapes that are crucial for their function. The arrangement of various electron groups around the central atom dictates …
Life on Earth is carbon-based, as all macromolecules that make up living organisms contain carbon atoms. All organic compounds have a carbon backbone. …
A chemical reaction is a process by which the bonds in the atoms of substances are rearranged to generate new substances. Matter cannot be created or …
Elements have a set number of protons that determines their atomic number (Z). For example, all atoms with eight protons are oxygen; however, the number …
Overview When two atoms share electrons to complete their valence shells they create a covalent bond. An atom’s electronegativity—the force …
Overview When atoms gain or lose electrons to achieve a more stable electron configuration they form ions. Ionic bonds are electrostatic attractions …
Hydrogen bonds are weak attractions between atoms that have formed other chemical bonds. One of these atoms is electronegative, like oxygen, and has a …
Atoms and molecules interact with each other through intermolecular forces. These electrostatic forces arise from attractive or repulsive interactions …
Water exists in any one of the three classical states: solid (ice), liquid (water), and gas (steam or water vapor). The state of water depends on i) the …

pH

The potential of hydrogen (pH) is a measure of the acidity or basicity of a water-based solution determined by the concentration of hydronium ions (H3O+). …
A solvent is a substance, most often a liquid, that can dissolve other substances. Here, the substance being dissolved is called a solute. When a solvent …
Oxidation-reduction or redox reactions involve the transfer of electrons from one molecule or atom to another. When an atom gains an electron, another …
Adhesion occurs when one type of molecule is attracted to a different molecule. Water exhibits adhesive properties in the presence of polar surfaces, such …
Cohesion is the attraction between molecules of the same type, such as water molecules. Water molecules have an overall neutral charge but are polar …
The specific heat capacity of a substance refers to the energy required to increase the temperature of one gram of that substance by one degree Celcius. …
The physical form of a substance changes by changing its temperature. For example, raising the temperature of a liquid causes the liquid to vaporize …
Cholesterol content of cells must be maintained within the very tight limits, too much or too little cholesterol in a cell results in disruption of …
The nematode C. elegans has emerged as an important model for the study of conserved genetic pathways regulating fat metabolism as it relates to human …
Treatment of dyslipidemia patients with lipid-lowering drugs leads to a significant reduction in low-density lipoproteins (LDL) level and a low to …