The purpose of this protocol is to demonstrate the techniques for measuring compensatory responses to reduced central blood volume using lower body negative pressure as a noninvasive experimental model of human hemorrhage which can be used to quantify the total integration of compensatory mechanisms to blood volume deficit in humans.
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Method Article
Integrated Compensatory Responses in a Human Model of Hemorrhage
In This Article
Summary
Abstract
Hemorrhage is the leading cause of trauma-related deaths, partly because early diagnosis of the severity of blood loss is difficult. Assessment of hemorrhaging patients is difficult because current clinical tools provide measures of vital signs that remain stable during the early stages of bleeding due to compensatory mechanisms. Consequently, there is a need to understand and measure the total integration of mechanisms that compensate for reduced circulating blood volume and how they change during ongoing progressive hemorrhage. The body's reserve to compensate for reduced circulating blood volume is called the 'compensatory reserve'. The compensatory reserve can be accurately evaluated with real-time measurements of changes in the features of the arterial waveform measured with the use of a high-powered computer. Lower Body Negative Pressure (LBNP) has been shown to simulate many of the physiological responses in humans associated with hemorrhage, and is used to study the compensatory response to hemorrhage. The purpose of this study is to demonstrate how compensatory reserve is assessed during progressive reductions in central blood volume with LBNP as a simulation of hemorrhage.
Introduction
The most important function of the cardiovascular system is the control of adequate perfusion (blood flow and oxygen delivery) to all tissues of the body through homeostatic regulation of arterial blood pressure. Various mechanisms of compensation (e.g., autonomic nervous system activity, cardiac rate and contractility, venous return, vasoconstriction, respiration) contribute to maintain normal physiological levels of oxygen in the tissues.1 Reductions in circulating blood volume such as those caused by hemorrhage can compromise the ability of cardiovascular compensatory mechanisms and ultimately lead to low arterial blood pressure, serious tissue hypoxia, and circulatory shock that can be fatal.
Circulatory shock caused by severe bleeding (i.e., hemorrhagic shock) is a leading cause of death due to trauma.2 One of the most challenging aspects of preventing a patient from developing shock is our inability to recognize its early onset. Early and accurate assessment of the progression toward the development of shock is currently limited in the clinical setting by technologies (i.e., medical monitors) that provide measurements of vital signs that change very little in the early stages of blood loss because of the body's numerous compensatory mechanisms for regulating blood pressure.3-6 As such, the capability to measure the sum total of the body's reserve to compensate for blood loss represents the most accurate reflection of tissue perfusion state and the risk of developing shock.1 This reserve is called the compensatory reserve which can be accurately assessed by real-time measurements of changes in features of the arterial waveform.1 Depletion of the compensatory reserve replicates the terminal cardiovascular instability observed in critically ill patients with sudden onset of hypotension; a condition known as hemodynamic decompensation.7
The relationship between the utilization of the compensatory reserve and regulation of blood pressure during ongoing blood loss in humans can be demonstrated in the laboratory using a comprehensive set of physiological measurements (e.g., blood pressures, heart rate, arterial blood oxygen saturation, stroke volume, cardiac output, vascular resistance, respiration rate, pulse character, mental status, end-tidal CO2, tissue oxygen) provided by standard physiological monitoring during continuous progressive reductions in central blood volume similar to those that occur during hemorrhage. Lowered central blood volume can be induced noninvasively with progressive increases in Lower Body Negative Pressure (LBNP).8 Using this combination of physiological measurements and LBNP, the conceptual understanding of how to assess the body's ability to compensate for reduced central blood volume can easily be demonstrated. This study depicts the prelab preparation, the demonstration of compensatory response in relation to other physiological responses during simulated hemorrhage, and the postlab evaluation of results. The experimental techniques necessary for making measurements of compensatory reserve are demonstrated in a human volunteer.
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Protocol
Prior to any human procedure, the institutional review board (IRB) must approve the protocol. The protocol used in this study was approved by the US Army Medical Research and Materiel Command IRB. The protocol is designed to demonstrate the physiological responses of compensation to a progressive reduction in central blood volume similar to that experienced by individuals during ongoing hemorrhage in a controlled and reproducible laboratory setting. The laboratory room temperature is controlled at 23 - 25 ˚C.
1. Equipment Preparation
- Turn on equipment and devices requiring warm-up and calibration.
NOTE: Equipment and devices include a data acquisition system to record data at 1 Hz; two separate devices that provide noninvasive, continuous measurements of brachial artery blood pressure and arterial oxygen saturation (SpO2) using two separate infrared finger photoplethysmography cuff sensors9-11; a capnograph for measurement of end-tidal CO2 and respiratory rate; and a finger pulse oximeter to acquire peripheral pulsatile arterial waveforms for measuring Compensatory Reserve. - Synchronize all of the instruments with internal clocks by adjusting the time stamp on each instrument to match a laboratory master clock that will be used to mark time during the experiment.
2. Subject Preparation
- Instruct the subject to avoid caffeine, alcohol, and strenuous exercise 24 h prior to testing, and to avoid eating at least 2 h prior to the protocol in the event that hemodynamic decompensation induces nausea.
- Prior to initiation of the protocol, have the physician perform a medical screening exam to ensure the subject meets minimal health requirements, and ensures the absence of exclusion criteria (nicotine use, hypertension, autonomic dysfunction, or history of syncopal episodes). Since pregnancy is an exclusion criterion for participation, require female participants to take a standard urine pregnancy test on the day of the study.
NOTE: For the safety of the subject, the study physician is certified in advanced life support, and is present during the study. A fully-equipped 'crash cart' is immediately available to support the subject's airway, respiration, and circulation in the event of loss of consciousness or an acute cardiac arrhythmia taking place during the LBNP procedure. - Inform the subject about the procedure, and obtain written consent to participate in the study.
NOTE: Explain to the subject that the goal of the study is to apply LBNP until the onset of cardiovascular decompensation (presyncope). Explain that there are cardiovascular parameters that define this point, and LBNP will be terminated when these cardiovascular parameters are observed. Inform the subject that they may also experience symptoms typically associated with presyncope during the LBNP procedure. Instruct the subject to notify the investigator if these symptoms occur and LBNP will immediately be terminated. - Place the neoprene LBNP skirt on the subject. Ensure that the skirt is snug around the waist and torso in order to create an air-tight seal.
- Instruct the subject to lay supine on the bed of the LBNP chamber while straddling a stationary post to secure the torso in place during LBNP. Instruct the subject to relax the lower body during LBNP exposure. Secure the subject into the LBNP chamber by sliding the bed into the chamber and attaching the neoprene skirt to the chamber opening to create an air-tight seal.
NOTE: The LBNP chamber provides the capability of accurately (within 0.1 mmHg) controlling the internal pressure from 0 to -100 mmHg either manually or with a computerized profile. The chamber includes an adjustable saddle to secure the subject's body position. Clear plexiglass windows allow for visualization of the subject's legs. An adjustable aluminum waist board allows for an air-tight seal to be created by a neoprene skirt worn by the subject and the LBNP chamber at the level of the iliac crest (Figure 1). - Place electrocardiogram (ECG) electrodes on the right and left humoral-clavicular joints, and on the right and left lower ribs (total of 4) in a modified lead II configuration (Figure 1) for continuous measurement of heart rate.
- Position the subject's arms on the arm rests, adjusted so that the hands are supported at heart level. Using appropriate size finger cuffs, place an infrared finger photoplethysmography device on the left and right middle fingers for continuous noninvasive beat-to-beat measurement of blood pressure.
- Attach the finger cuffs to the pressure monitors. Calibrate the devices and record blood pressure according to the manufacturer instructions.12 Enter subject information (age, sex, height, and weight) to enable the appropriate assumptions for calculation (estimation) of stroke volume, cardiac output and peripheral vascular resistance by the Modelflow algorithm if desired.13,14
- Place the finger pulse oximeter on the right index finger for continuous measurement of compensatory reserve1,12 (Figure 2).
- Place a nasal cannula on the subject and instruct the subject to breathe through the nose to assure sensitive reflections in inspiration and expiration. Nasal air sampling will allow the subject to talk freely for self-reporting of developing symptoms. Connect the nasal cannula to the capnograph for the continuous measurement of respiration and end tidal CO2.
3. Performing the LBNP Protocol
- Start data recording by clicking the "Start" button on the data acquisition system. Record baseline data for 5 min. Initiate the first level of central hypovolemia by turning on the vacuum motor and setting negative pressure to -15 mmHg, and hold this pressure for 5 min. Figure 3 outlines the protocol.
- Increase the LBNP to -30 mmHg, and hold this pressure for 5 min.
- Increase the LBNP to -45 mmHg, and hold this pressure for 5 min.
- Increase the LBNP to -60 mmHg, and hold this pressure for 5 min.
- Increase the LBNP to -70 mmHg, and hold this pressure for 5 min.
- Continue to increase LBNP levels by -10 mmHg every 5 min until the end of the protocol (5 min at -100 mmHg LBNP) or the point of hemodynamic decompensation. Terminate the LBNP by pressing the pressure release button on the LBNP chamber.
NOTE: Hemodynamic decompensation is identified by a precipitous fall in systolic arterial pressure below 80 mmHg, or the subject reporting presyncopal symptoms such as grey-out (loss of color vision), tunnel vision, sweating, nausea or dizziness (Figure 4). - Continue recording data on the data acquisition system during 10 min after the cessation of LBNP (postLBNP recovery).
- Stop recording data at the end of the 10-min recovery period by clicking the "Stop" button on the data acquisition system.
- Detach all instrumentation from the subject and remove the subject from the LBNP chamber. Ask the subject to sit after stepping down from the LBNP platform to ensure they are symptom-free before leaving the laboratory. The study is now complete.
- Download data files from the acquisition system for extraction of the Compensatory Reserve Index (CRI), Mean Arterial Pressure (MAP), heart rate, and SpO2 values. 1,15,16
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Results
The LBNP procedure causes a reduction in air pressure around the lower torso and legs. As this vacuum is progressively increased, blood volume shifts from the head and upper torso to the lower body to create a state of central hypovolemia. The progressive reduction in central blood volume (i.e., LBNP) produces significant alterations in the features of the arterial waveform measured with the infrared finger photoplethysmograph (Figure 5). The Compensatory Reserve...
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Discussion
Using LBNP to cause progressive and continuous reductions in central blood volume, we were able to induce a typical response of hemodynamic decompensation in the subject, characterized by a sudden onset of hypotension and bradycardia (Figure 7). It is important to understand that the integrated compensatory response to hemorrhage is very complex,19 resulting in significant individual variability in the tolerance to blood loss.1 As such, some individuals have relatively responsive co...
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Disclosures
The authors declare that they have no competing financial interests. The views expressed herein are the private views of the authors and are not to be construed as representing those of the US Department of the Army or the US Department of Defense.
Acknowledgements
This work is supported by funding from the United States Army, Medical Research and Materiel Command, Combat Casualty Care Program. We thank LTC Kevin S. Akers, MD and Ms. Kristen R. Lye for their assistance in making the video.
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Materials
| Name | Company | Catalog Number | Comments |
|---|---|---|---|
| Dynamic Research Evaluation Workstation (DREW) data acquisition syetem | NA | NA | Custom Built by ISR personnel. The DREW allows for time synchronization of both digital and analog signal data collection from up to 16 independent instruments with a sampling rate of 1,000 Hz. |
| Finometer | Finapress Medical Systems (FMS) | Model 1 | Device that provides noninvasive, continuous measurements of brachial artery blood pressure and arterial oxygen saturation (SpO2) using two separate infrared finger photophlethymography cuff sensors. |
| BCI Capnocheck Plus | Smith Medical PM Inc. | 9004 | Capnograph used to measure end tidal CO2 and respiration rate |
| CipherOX | Flashback Technologies Inc. | R200 | Investigational device used to calculate Compensatory Reserve Index (CRI) |
| Nonin 9560 Pulse Oximeter | Nonin | 9560 | finger pulse oximeter |
| Lower Body Negative Pressure Chamber (LBNP) | NASA | 79K32632-1 | Custom Chamber built by NASA |
| ECG Biotach | Gould | 13-6615-65 | Electrocardiograph for measuring ECG |
| Nasal CO2 Sample Line | Salter Labs | REF 4000 | Latex free nasal cannula for sampling expired air |
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