Optimization and Comparative Analysis of Plant Organellar DNA Enrichment Methods Suitable for Next-generation Sequencing

Summary

The comparison and optimization of two plant organellar DNA enrichment methods are presented: traditional differential centrifugation and fractionation of the total gDNA based on methylation status. We assess the resulting DNA quantity and quality, demonstrate performance in short-read next-generation sequencing, and discuss the potential for use in long-read single-molecule sequencing.

Abstract

Plant organellar genomes contain large, repetitive elements that may undergo pairing or recombination to form complex structures and/or sub-genomic fragments. Organellar genomes also exist in admixtures within a given cell or tissue type (heteroplasmy), and an abundance of subtypes may change throughout development or when under stress (sub-stoichiometric shifting). Next-generation sequencing (NGS) technologies are required to obtain deeper understanding of organellar genome structure and function. Traditional sequencing studies use several methods to obtain organellar DNA: (1) If a large amount of starting tissue is used, it is homogenized and subjected to differential centrifugation and/or gradient purification. (2) If a smaller amount of tissue is used (i.e., if seeds, material, or space is limited), the same process is performed as in (1), followed by whole-genome amplification to obtain sufficient DNA. (3) Bioinformatics analysis can be used to sequence the total genomic DNA and to parse out organellar reads. All these methods have inherent challenges and tradeoffs. In (1), it may be difficult to obtain such a large amount of starting tissue; in (2), whole-genome amplification could introduce a sequencing bias; and in (3), homology between nuclear and organellar genomes could interfere with assembly and analysis. In plants with large nuclear genomes, it is advantageous to enrich for organellar DNA to reduce sequencing costs and sequence complexity for bioinformatics analyses. Here, we compare a traditional differential centrifugation method with a fourth method, an adapted CpG-methyl pulldown approach, to separate the total genomic DNA into nuclear and organellar fractions. Both methods yield sufficient DNA for NGS, DNA that is highly enriched for organellar sequences, albeit at different ratios in mitochondria and chloroplasts. We present the optimization of these methods for wheat leaf tissue and discuss major advantages and disadvantages of each approach in the context of sample input, protocol ease, and downstream application.

Introduction

Genome sequencing is a powerful tool to dissect the underlying genetic basis of important plant traits. Most genome-sequencing studies focus on the nuclear genome content, as the majority of genes are located in the nucleus. However, organellar genomes, including the mitochondria (across eukaryotes) and plastids (in plants; the specialized form, the chloroplast, works in photosynthesis) contribute significant genetic information essential to organismal development, stress response, and overall fitness¹. Organellar genomes are typically included in total DNA extractions intended for nuclear genome sequencing, although methods to reduce organelle numbers prior to DNA extraction are also employed². Many studies have used sequencing results from total gDNA extractions to assemble organellar genomes^3,4,5,6,7. However, when the target of the study is to focus on organellar genomes, using the total gDNA increases the sequencing costs because many reads are "lost" to the nuclear DNA sequences, particularly in plants with large nuclear genomes. Moreover, due to the duplication and transfer of organellar sequences into the nuclear genome and between organelles, resolving the correct mapping position of sequencing reads to the proper genome is bioinformatically challenging^2,8. The purification of organellar genomes from the nuclear genome is one strategy to reduce these problems. Further bioinformatics strategies may be used to separate reads that map to regions of homology between the mitochondria and chloroplasts.

While the organellar genomes from many plant species have been sequenced, little is known about the breadth of organellar genome diversity available in wild populations or in cultivated breeding pools. Organellar genomes are also known to be dynamic molecules that undergo significant structural rearrangement due to recombination between repeat sequences⁹. Moreover, multiple copies of the organellar genome are contained within each organelle, and multiple organelles are contained within each cell. Not all copies of these genomes are identical, which is known as heteroplasmy. In contrast to the canonical picture of "master circles," there is now growing evidence for a more complex picture of organellar genome structures, including sub-genomic circles, linear chromosomes, linear concatamers, and branched structures¹⁰. The assembly of plant organellar genomes is further complicated by their relatively large sizes and substantial inverted and direct repeats.

Traditional protocols for organellar isolation, DNA purification, and subsequent genome sequencing are often cumbersome and require large volumes of tissue input, with several grams to upwards of hundreds of grams of young leaf tissue necessary as a starting point^{11,12,13,14,15,16,17}. This makes organellar genome sequencing inaccessible when tissue is limited. In some situations, seed amounts are limited, such as when it is necessary to sequence on a generational basis or in male sterile lines that have to be maintained via crossing. In these situations, organellar DNA can be purified and then subjected to whole-genome amplification. However, whole-genome amplification can introduce significant sequencing bias, which is a particular problem when assessing structural variation, sub-genomic structures, and heteroplasmy levels¹⁸. Recent advances in library preparation for short-read sequencing technologies have overcome low-input barriers to avoid whole-genome amplification. For example, the Illumina Nextera XT library preparation kit allows for as little as 1 ng of DNA to be used as input¹⁹. However, standard library preparations for long-read sequencing applications, such as PacBio or Oxford Nanopore sequencing technologies, still require a relatively high amount of input DNA, which can pose a challenge for organellar genome sequencing. Recently, new user-made, long-read sequencing protocols have been developed to reduce the input amounts and to help facilitate genome sequencing in samples where obtaining microgram-quantities of DNA is difficult^20,21. However, obtaining high-molecular weight, pure organellar fractions to feed into these library preparations remains a challenge.

We sought to compare and optimize organellar DNA enrichment and isolation methods suitable for NGS without the need of whole-genome amplification. Specifically, our goal was to determine best practices to enrich for high-molecular weight organellar DNA from limited starting materials, such as a subsample of a leaf. This work presents a comparative analysis of methods to enrich for organellar DNA: (1) a modified, traditional differential centrifugation protocol versus (2) a DNA fractionation protocol based on the use of a commercially available DNA CpG-methyl-binding domain protein pulldown approach²² applied to plant tissue²³. We recommend best practices for the isolation of organellar DNA from wheat leaf tissue, which may be readily extended to other plants and tissue types.

Protocol

1. Generation of Plant Materials for Organellar Isolation and DNA Extraction

1. Standard growth of wheat seedlings
   1. Plant seeds in vermiculite in small, square pots with 4 - 6 seeds per corner. Transfer to a greenhouse or growth chamber with a 16 h light cycle, 23 ºC day/18 ºC night.
   2. Water the plants each day. Fertilize the plants with ¼ teaspoon of granular 20-20-20 N-P-K fertilizer upon germination and at 7 days post-germination.
2. Alternative etiolation of wheat seedlings
   1. Follow step 1.1, but place the pots in a dark growth chamber, 23 °C for 16 h/18 ºC for 8 h. Alternatively, cover the plants in the greenhouse (e.g., with a storage container; however, proper ventilation must be maintained).
3. Growth and tissue collection
   1. Grow the plants for 12 - 14 days. For most wheat genotypes, 75 - 100 seedlings yield around 10 - 12 g of tissue, which is sufficient for two organellar extractions using the differential centrifugation method (section 2); only one plant is necessary if utilizing the DNA CpG-methylation-based pulldown approach to fractionate organellar from nuclear DNA (section 3).
   2. If utilizing the differential centrifugation approach, collect tissue fresh and proceed immediately to processing the samples, as described in section 2.
   3. If utilizing the CpG-methyl pulldown approach, harvest 20 mg sections of young leaf tissue into microcentrifuge tubes (use either standard-grown or etiolated tissue, see the Representative Results). Snap-freeze on liquid nitrogen and freeze at -80 ºC until use. Proceed to the pulldown fractionation of DNA, as described in section 3.

2. Method #1: DNA Extraction Using Differential Centrifugation (DC)

NOTE: The differential centrifugation protocol was modified from two publications that optimized conditions to isolate both organelles but enrich for mitochondria^17,24. The resulting protocol is less time-intensive and uses fewer toxic chemicals than the previous methods. Specifically, we made modifications to the buffers and wash steps, including the addition of polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) to the STE extraction buffer and the elimination of the final wash step in NETF buffer, which contains sodium fluoride (NaF).

Caution: The preparation and use of STE buffer should be performed under a chemical fume hood with proper personal protection equipment, as this buffer contains 2-mercaptoethanol (BME).

1. Things to do before starting
   1. Ensure that all equipment is extremely clean, and autoclave any equipment that can be autoclaved (e.g., grinding cylinders, high-speed centrifuge tubes, etc.).
      NOTE: Filter-tips are recommended for all steps requiring pipetting to avoid cross-contamination.
   2. See the list of required equipment and reagents and prepare the required buffers and working stocks for Method #1 (Table 1). Chill the cryogenic grinding blocks to -20 ºC and the rotors and buffers to 4 ºC, set the microcentrifuge to 4 ºC, and turn on a 37 ºC water bath.
2. Isolation of organelles
   1. Harvest 5 g of fresh tissue and rinse it in cold, sterile water in a chilled beaker on ice.
      NOTE: Always keep the samples on ice during all operations and transportations to and from the centrifuges, fume hoods, etc. Alternatively, work in a cold room if there is access to sufficient space and equipment to carry out the protocol.
   2. Using scissors, cut leaf tissue into ~1-cm pieces directly into a 50 mL tube containing two ceramic grinding cylinders.
      NOTE: Clean or change the scissors between samples to avoid cross-contamination.
   3. If there is no tissue homogenizer, use a mortar and pestle and follow to replace steps 2.2.4 - 2.2.9.
      1. Cut the leaf tissue into a pre-chilled mortar on ice. Grind the samples for 2 - 3 min in 15 mL of STE (in the fume hood).
      2. Pour off the buffer (leave the tissue in the mortar) through a funnel containing one layer of pre-wet, sterile filtration cloth (~22- to 25-µm pore size; see the main protocol for details) into another 50-mL tube. Add an additional 10 mL of STE to the mortar and pestle and homogenize again.
      3. Pour the homogenized tissue and buffer into the same funnel. Rinse the mortar and pestle with 10 mL of STE and pour it into the funnel. Squeeze and wring out the filtration cloth into the funnel to recover as much liquid as possible.
         NOTE: Change gloves between samples to avoid cross-contamination. Continue with the protocol at step 2.2.10.
   4. Add 20 mL of STE (in the fume hood) to each 50 mL tube.
   5. Place the samples into pre-chilled cryogenic grinding blocks in a tissue grinding apparatus and grind the samples for 2 x 30 s at 1,750 rpm. Rotate the sample positions and place the samples on ice for ~1 min between grinds.
      NOTE: A mortar and pestle, blender, or other tissue grinding/homogenizing device may be used in this step. However, each method will affect the resulting DNA quality to different degrees, and therefore DNA length and quality should be assessed before continuing with downstream applications.
   6. Insert a funnel into a clean 50-mL tube placed in ice. Place one layer of filtration cloth into the funnel and pre-wet it with 5 mL of STE. Do not discard the flow-through.
   7. Pour the homogenized tissue into the funnel. Rinse the grinding tube with 15 mL of STE, recap and invert the tube to rinse the walls and lid, and pour into the funnel.
   8. Carefully remove the ceramic stones and then squeeze and wring out the filtration cloth into the funnel.
      NOTE: Change gloves between samples to avoid cross-contamination.
   9. Wrap the tube caps with parafilm to avoid spillage. Centrifuge at 2,000 x g for 10 min at 4 ºC.
   10. Carefully aspirate the supernatant using a serological pipette (avoid disturbing the pellet) and place it in a 50 mL high-speed centrifuge tube (if the tubes do not have tight sealing gaskets, wrap the tube caps with parafilm to avoid spillage). Discard the pellets.
   11. Balance the tubes to within 0.1 g using STE and centrifuge the resulting supernatant for 20 min at 18,000 x g and 4 ºC. To balance the tubes, place a small beaker of ice on the balance, tare the scale, and weigh the samples on ice to keep them cold. Alternatively, use a balance and a fume hood in a cold room.
   12. Discard the supernatant. Add 1 mL of ST to the pellet and re-suspend gently using a soft paintbrush. Add 24 mL of ST (final volume of 25 mL) and mix/swirl (i.e., press the paintbrush on the side of the tube to remove all liquid).
   13. Balance the tubes to within 0.1 g using ST. Centrifuge for 20 min at 18,000 x g and 4 ºC. Meanwhile, prepare DNaseI solution (see Table 1 for stock and working solution recipes). For each sample, make one 200 µL aliquot in a 1.5 mL tube.
   14. Discard the supernatant, blot the tube, and re-suspend the pellet (still in a high-speed centrifuge tube) in 300 µL of ST using a soft paintbrush. Place the paintbrush in the previously prepared 1.5 mL tube containing 200 µL of DNaseI solution and swirl the paintbrush to remove any residual pellet stuck in the brush. Pipette the DNaseI solution back into the high-speed centrifuge tube and gently swirl to mix.
   15. Incubate at 37 °C for 30 min in a water bath (wrap parafilm around top of the tube to prevent condensation leaking into the cap). Gently mix by swirling 2 times during incubation.
   16. Gently pipette the pellet mixture out of the tube using a pipette tip with a wide orifice and place it in a 1.5 mL low-bind tube. Add 500 µL of 400 mM EDTA, pH 8.0, to the high-speed centrifuge tube and gently pipette to get all of the residual pellet out of the tube. Transfer the EDTA to the same 1.5-mL, low-bind tube as the pellet mixture and gently mix by inversion.
   17. Centrifuge at 18,000 x g for 20 min at 4 ºC. Discard the supernatant, blot the tube, and use at once for DNA isolation. If necessary, freeze pellets at -20 ºC, but this may result in a yield reduction, as residual DNaseI may degrade the sample DNA if it is not immediately processed.
3. DNA extraction from isolated organelles using a commercial column-based approach
   NOTE: See the kit handbook for the full protocol²⁵, and see below for modifications. Proceeding directly from organellar isolation to DNA extraction is preferred. Repeated freezing and thawing will reduce DNA fragment sizes and lead to DNA degradation by residual DNaseI. Limit vortexing or vigorous pipetting, as this can shear the DNA. The use of low-bind microcentrifuge tubes is recommended to maximize DNA recovery.
   1. DNA extraction procedure
      NOTE: Read the detailed commercial protocol²⁵ before starting to ensure that the buffers are properly made/stored and that the spin-column procedures are understood.
      1. Add 180 µL of Buffer ATL directly into the tube with the pellet (thawed if previously frozen and equilibrated to room temperature on the benchtop).
      2. Proceed with step 3 in the protocol for "DNA Purifications from Tissues" in the kit handbook, with the following modifications: a 30-min lysis in step 3, include the optional RNase A digestion, and elute in 3 x 200 µL of AE (each into a separate tube and then combine the elutions).
      3. Save an aliquot (at least 20 µL) for qPCR (see step 4.1). To quantify before concentrating, save an additional 1 µL for high-sensitivity quantification.
      4. If desired, proceed with sample concentration.
4. Sample concentration with commercial filter units
   NOTE: See the commercial protocol²⁶ for more details. Depending on the downstream use, it may not be necessary to perform sample concentration (e.g., for end-point PCR and qPCR applications). However, for NGS library construction, it will likely be necessary to concentrate dilute organellar DNA obtained after DNA extraction.
   1. Concentration column procedure
      1. Carefully pre-weigh (see Table 2) the empty filter unit (without a tube) on a clean piece of weighing paper on a digital analytical balance. Record the weight.
      2. Pipette the combined elutions into the filter unit and carefully weigh again.
         NOTE: The commercial manual²⁶ says that the filter unit maximum volume is 500 µL, but up to 575 µL can be added to the unit at once with no overflow.
      3. Carefully place the filled filter unit into a tube (provided with the columns). Centrifuge at 500 x g for the desired time to achieve the required concentrate volume. For a sample volume of ~575 µL, a 20-min spin will usually result in a concentrate volume of 15 - 30 µL.
      4. Remove the filter unit from the tube and weigh again. Use the table to determine if the desired concentrate volume has been achieved. If not, centrifuge again at 500 x g for a shorter length of time and weigh again; repeat until the desired concentrate volume is reached.
      5. Place a new tube (provided with the columns) over the top of the filter unit and invert. Centrifuge for 3 min at 1,000 x g to transfer the concentrate to the tube.
      6. Determine the volume recovered. This will usually be ~3 - 5 µL less than the calculated volume, due to filter retention. If over-concentrated, dilute with sterile water or TE to achieve the desired volume.
      7. Quantify the DNA using high-sensitivity quantification (per manufacturer instructions).

3. Method #2: Methyl-fractionation (MF) Approach to Enrich for Organellar DNA from Total Genomic DNA

NOTE: This protocol was modified from a user-developed Genomic Tip Kit DNA extraction protocol for plants and fungi²⁷ and the commercial Microbiome DNA Enrichment Kit protocol²⁸. In theory, any DNA isolation protocol that yields high-molecular weight DNA may be used for the pulldown. For short-read sequencing, any extraction yielding predominately >15 kb fragments is adequate for use in the pulldown. For long-read sequencing, larger fragments may be desirable. Therefore, we optimized this protocol to yield high molecular weight DNA.

1. Isolation of total DNA
   NOTE: See the list of required equipment and reagents and prepare the required buffers and working stocks for Method #2 (Table 1). Add lysing enzymes to the lysis buffer stock to make the lysis buffer working solution. Turn on the thermomixer and set it to 37 °C. Turn on the water bath to 50 °C and place QF buffer in the bath. Place 70% EtOH in the freezer and set the microcentrifuge to 4 °C.
   1. Total DNA extraction using commercial DNA extraction columns
      NOTE: Before starting, read the commercial handbook²⁹ for detailed information regarding the use of the gravity-flow anion-exchange columns. The columns may be set up using a specialized rack or placed over the tubes using the provided plastic rings. All steps, including the genomic tips, should be allowed to proceed by gravity flow, and residual liquid should NOT be forced through.
      1. Grind 20 mg of frozen tissue in liquid nitrogen in a 2-mL low-bind tube using hand-held grinding pestles designed for 2-mL tubes.
      2. Add 2 mL of lysis buffer working solution (the tubes will be very full).
      3. Incubate in a thermomixer at 37 °C for 1 h with gentle agitation at 300 rpm. If a thermomixer is not available, incubating on a heat block and mixing by gentle flicking every 15 min is a suitable alternative.
      4. Add 4 µL of RNase A (100 mg/mL, final concentration of 200 µg/mL). Invert to mix and incubate in a thermomixer for 30 min at 37 °C, with gentle agitation at 300 rpm.
      5. Add 80 µL of proteinase K (20 mg/mL, final concentration of 0.8 mg/mL), invert to mix, and incubate in a thermomixer for 2 h at 50 °C, with gentle agitation at 300 rpm.
      6. Centrifuge for 20 min at 4 °C and 15,000 x g to pellet the insoluble debris.
      7. While the samples are centrifuging, equilibrate the columns with 1 mL of Buffer QBT and allow the column to empty by gravity flow.
      8. Use a wide-bore pipette tip to promptly apply the sample (avoid the pellet) to the equilibrated column and allow it to fully flow through the column. If the sample becomes cloudy, filter or centrifuge again before application to the column (see the commercial handbook for details²⁹).
      9. Once the sample has fully entered the resin, wash the column with 4 x 1 mL of Buffer QC.
      10. Suspend the column over a clean, 2 mL, low-bind microcentrifuge tube. Elute the genomic DNA with 0.8 mL of Buffer QF prewarmed at 50 °C.
      11. Precipitate the DNA by adding 0.56 mL (0.7 volumes of elution buffer) of room-temperature isopropanol to the eluted DNA.
      12. Mix by inversion (10X) and centrifuge immediately for 20 min at 15,000 x g and 4 °C. Carefully remove the supernatant without disturbing the glassy, loosely attached pellet.
      13. Wash the centrifuged DNA pellet with 1 mL of cold 70% ethanol. Centrifuge for 10 min at 15,000 x g and 4 °C.
      14. Carefully remove the supernatant (be cautious with this step as well) without disturbing the pellet. Air-dry for 5-10 min and resuspend the DNA in 0.1 mL of elution buffer (EB). Dissolve the DNA overnight at room temperature. Avoid pipetting, which may shear the DNA.
      15. Quantify the samples using a high-sensitivity DNA quantification assay (per manufacturer instructions).
2. Bead-based fractionation of methylated and unmethylated DNA
   NOTE: A recent publication demonstrated the use of a commercially available kit²⁸ that takes advantage of a pulldown approach utilizing a CpG-specific methyl-binding domain protein fused to the human IgG Fc fragment (MBD2-Fc protein) to fractionate plant organellar genomes (unmethylated) from nuclear genome (highly methylated) content²³. Fractionation efficiency in wheat samples was not previously tested using this commercial MF kit²⁸.
   1. Things to do before starting
      1. Freshly prepare 80% ethanol (at least 800 µL per reaction). Set 5x bind/wash buffer to thaw on ice and prepare 5 mL of 1x buffer per sample (dilute 5X buffer with sterile, nuclease-free water and keep on ice during the protocol).
   2. Prepare MBD2-Fc protein-bound magnetic beads
      1. Prepare the required number of bead sets. Scale the reactions to use between 1 and 2 µg of total input DNA, requiring 160 - 320 µL of beads. Note that the reactions listed below are for 1 µg of total input DNA, so they require 160 µL of beads. Scale the reactions according to the needs.
      2. Using wide-bore tips, gently pipette the Protein A Magnetic Bead slurry up and down to create a homogeneous suspension. As an alternative, gently rotate the tube of beads for 15 min at 4 °C.
         NOTE: Do not vortex the beads.
      3. Proceed with the directions per the manufacturer instructions²⁸.
   3. Capture methylated nuclear DNA
      1. For each individual sample, add 1 µg of input DNA to a tube containing 160 µL of MBD2-Fc-bound magnetic beads.
      2. Add 5x bind/wash buffer as appropriate given the volume of the DNA input sample for a final concentration of 1x (volume of 5x bind/wash buffer to add (µL) = volume of input DNA (µL)/4). Pipette the sample up and down a few times to mix using a wide-bore pipette tip.
      3. Rotate the tubes at room temperature for 15 min. Gently pipette the samples with a wide-bore pipette tip and flick the samples 2 - 3 times throughout the incubation to prevent bead clumping.
         NOTE: The pipetting and flicking is critical to ensure efficient pulldown of the methylated DNA.
   4. Collect enriched, unmethylated organellar DNA
      1. Briefly spin the tube containing the DNA and MBD2-Fc-bound magnetic bead mixture. Place the tube on a magnetic rack for at least 5 min to collect the beads to the side of the tube. The solution should appear clear.
      2. Using wide-bore tips, carefully remove the cleared supernatant without disturbing the beads. Transfer the supernatant (contains unmethylated, organellar-enriched DNA) to a clean, low-bind, 2-mL microcentrifuge tube. Store this sample at -20 or -80 °C, or proceed directly to step 3.2.6 for purification.
   5. Elute captured nuclear DNA from the MBD2-Fc-bound magnetic beads
      1. If the nuclear fraction is also desired, follow the manufacturer instructions²⁸ to elute the nuclear DNA from the MBD2-Fc-bound magnetic beads; purify as described in step 3.2.7.
   6. Bead-based nucleic acid purification
      1. Make sure the purification beads are at room temperature and are thoroughly mixed. Proceed with the protocol per the instructions in the MF kit manual²⁸.
         NOTE: The sample can now be used for NGS library construction or another downstream analysis.

4. Sample Quantification and Quality Control

1. qPCR assay to assess organellar enrichment
   NOTE: The qPCR reaction and assay parameters listed here were designed for use on a Roche LightCycler 480 and may need to be adjusted for different equipment and reagents. If qPCR is unavailable, end-point PCR and visualization on an agarose gel may be used as a qualitative measure of sample purity, using the same primers and conditions described here. Amplicon sizes will be ~150 bp for all primer sets. See Table 3 for primer sequences and pairings.
   1. qPCR reaction setup
      1. To set up an individual 20 µL qPCR reaction, carefully pipette the following into a single well of a 96-well qPCR plate: 10 µL of 2x SYBR Green I Master; 2 µL of the 10 µM forward and reverse primer mix (for a final concentration of 0.5 µM); 2 µL of template (within the range of the standard curve); and 6 µL of sterile, nuclease-free H₂O. To reduce pipetting errors, it is preferable to make a master mix with all reaction components except the template. Add the master mix to the qPCR plate and then add the template of interest to each well. Three technical replicates for each sample should be performed to minimize the effects of pipetting error.
         NOTE: Ultimately, the ratio of nuclear to organellar quantification cycles are compared between samples, so slight differences in concentration are acceptable. However, DNA concentrations should be roughly within the range of each other.
      2. Seal the plate with a high-quality qPCR sealing film. Gently vortex the samples, taking care to avoid the creation of any bubbles. Briefly spin the plate down for 2 min at 4 °C to collect the sample and eliminate any small bubbles.
      3. Load the plate into the machine. Run the qPCR program per the guidelines listed below.
   2. qPCR reaction parameters
      NOTE: These are default parameters, except for the annealing cycle of the amplification stage. Adjust this setting to accommodate specific primers if those used differ from the primers presented in this protocol.
      1. Pre-incubate at 95 °C for 5 min, with a ramp rate of 4.4 °C/s.
      2. Perform 45 amplification cycles of (1) 95 °C for 10 s, with a ramp rate of 4.4 °C/s; (2) 60 °C for 20 s, with a ramp rate of 2.2 °C/s; and (3) 72 °C for 10 s, with a ramp rate of 4.4 °C/s (data acquired during (3)).
      3. Use an optional melt curve cycle of 95 °C for 5 s, with a ramp rate of 4.4 °C/s; 65 °C for 1 min, with a ramp rate of 2.2 °C/s; and 97 °C, with a continuous acquisition mode.
      4. Use a cooling cycle of 40 °C for 30 s, with a ramp rate of 1.5 °C/s.
   3. Assay parameters
      1. Select the SYBR template. Check the program parameters in the Experiment button. Once plate is loaded, the assay can be started, and the settings may be adjusted while the assay is running.
      2. Assign samples using the sample editor. Select Abs Quant as the workflow and designate the samples as unknown, standards, or negative controls. Designate replicates and fill in the sample names of the first of each replicate. Add concentrations and units to the standards.
      3. Set up subsets for analysis; these are assigned in the subset editor.
      4. For analysis, select Abs Quant/2nd Derivative Max from the "create new analysis" list. Import the externally saved standard curve (if applicable) and then hit calculate; the report will contain the information selected.
      5. To perform accurate absolute quantification for the determination of copy number or concentration, use a standard curve that is representative of the sample being tested (e.g., organellar DNA isolated from the above methods). Since the amount of mitochondrial DNA required to prepare a standard curve is too high to be attained with a reasonable amount of tissue, do not utilize copy number calculations provided by the software, but instead examine crossing point (Cp) values to determine the relative enrichment of organellar compared to nuclear DNA in the samples. Compare these relative amounts to those of total genomic DNA (see the Representative Results). Test primer efficiencies on five 1:10 dilutions of total genomic DNA from fully light-grown, two-week-old wheat seedlings (representative efficiencies reported in the legend of Figure 2).
2. Pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE)
   NOTE: This protocol is based on manufacturer guidelines to perform PFGE to resolve high-molecular weight DNA. See the Materials Table.
   1. Preparing the gel and samples
      1. Follow the guidelines for gel and sample preparation and adapt them to the available system.
   2. Run the parameters
      1. Follow the guidelines for setting up the electrophoresis system and use the following parameters: initial switch time of 2 s, final switch time of 13 s, run time of 15 h and 16 min, V/cm of 6, and included angle of 120°.
   3. Stain and image the gel
      1. Stain the gel with a dye of choice (e.g., ethidium bromide or a suitable alternative) and image with a suitable gel documentation system.
3. NGS and analysis
   1. Use 1 ng of DNA as the input for the DNA Library Prep Kit, per the manufacturer's instructions.
   2. Barcode and pool the samples for sequencing in a single run. Perform sequencing according to manufacturer guidelines.
      NOTE: Pooling and sequencing parameters may be altered depending on the species of interest, the desired coverage level, and the platform used to sequence the libraries. For example, a HiSeq lane has substantially more output than a MiSeq lane, so many more samples can be multiplexed. Sequence a smaller subset of samples to determine if the coverage levels of the organellar genomes are adequate for downstream analysis.
   3. Examine the read quality using FastQC³¹ to determine the extent of trimming and filtering required for the data.
   4. Trim and filter the raw reads using Trimmomatic³² or another comparable program. Use the following settings: ILLUMINACLIP 2:30:10 (to remove adapters), LEADING 3, TRAILING 3, SLIDINGWINDOW 4:10, and MINLEN 100.
   5. Map the quality-filtered and adapter-trimmed paired-end (PE) reads to Chinese Spring mitochondrial (NCBI Reference Sequence NC_007579.1³³), chloroplast (NCBI Reference Sequence NC_002762.1³⁴), and nuclear³⁵ reference genomes using Bowtie2³⁶, with the following settings: -I 0 -X 800 --sensitive.
   6. Convert the sam alignment files to bam format (samtools) and sort the bam files. Use the bam files to calculate genome-wide coverage and per-base coverage with bedtools. Visualize the results with the R-plot function.

Results

The protocols presented in this manuscript describe two distinct methods to enrich for organellar DNA from plant tissue. The conditions presented here reflect optimization for wheat tissue. A comparison of key steps in the protocols, required tissue input, and DNA output are described in Figure 1. The steps of the DC protocol we tested follow similar conditions to those described previously (Figure 1A). Harvested tissue must be p...

Discussion

To date, most organellar sequencing studies center on traditional DC methods to enrich for specific DNA. Methods to isolate organelles from diverse plants have been described, including moss⁴⁰; monocots such as wheat¹⁵ and oats¹¹; and dicots such as arabidopsis¹¹, sunflower¹⁷, and rapeseed¹⁴. Most protocols focus on leaf tissue^13,

Materials

List of materials used in this article

Name	Company	Catalog Number	Comments
2-mercaptoethanol (beta-mercaptoethanol; BME)	Sigma Aldrich	M3148-100ml
2-propanol (Isopropyl alcohol/isopropanol), bioreagent	Sigma Aldrich	I9516
agarose, Bio-Rad Cetified Megabase agarose	Bio-Rad	1613108
analytical balance	Mettler Toledo	AB54-S
balance	Mettler Toledo	PB1502-S
bovine serum albumin (BSA)	Sigma Aldrich	B4287-25G
Ceramic grinding cylinders, 3/8in x 7/8in	SPEX SamplePrep	2183
Cryogenic Blocks compatible with tissue homogenizer for holding 50 mL tubes	SPEX SamplePrep	2664
DNaseI	Sigma	DN25
ethanol, absolute	Decon Laboratories	2716
Ethylenediamine Tetraacetic Acid (EDTA), 0.5 M Solution, pH 8.0	Fisher	BP2482-500
gel imaging system
gel stain			Such as GelRed or Ethidium Bromide
grinding pestle, wide tip for 2 mL conical tubes
Guanidine-HCl, 8 M solution	ThermoFisher	24115
LightCycler 480 SYBR Green I Master	Roche	4707516001
liquid nitrogen
Lysing enzymes from Trichoderma harzianum	Sigma	L1412
Magnesium Chloride	G Bioscience	24115
magnetic rack	ThermoFisher	A13346
microcentrifuge tubes, LoBind 1.5 mL	Eppendorf	22431021
microcentrifuge tubes, standard nuclease-free 1.5 mL	Eppendorf
microcentrifuge, refrigerated	Sorvall	Legend X1R	Or equivalent product, must be capable of reaching at least 18,000 x g with rotors for 50 mL tubes, Oak Ridge tubes, and 1.5 mL tubes
microcentrifuge, room temperature	Eppendorf	5424	Or equivalent product, must be capable of reaching at least 18,000 x g with rotor for 1.5 mL and 2 mL microcentrifuge tubes
Microcon DNA Fast Flow Centrifugal Filter Units	EMD Millipore	MRCFOR100
Miracloth, 1 square per sample cut to fit funnel	EMD Millipore	475855
NEBNext Microbiome DNA Enrichment Kit	New England Biolabs	E2612L
parafilm	Parafilm M	PM992
plastic pots and trays
polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP)	Fisher	BP431-100
Proteinase K	Qiagen	19131
Pulsed-Field Gel Electrophoresis rig (e.g. CHEF DR III)	Bio-Rad	1703697
purification beads, Agencourt AMpureXP beads	Beckman Coulter	A63881
QIAamp DNA Mini Kit	Qiagen	51304
Qiagen 20/g Genomic Tip DNA Extraction Kit	Qiagen	10223
Qiagen Buffer EB (elution buffer)	Qiagen	19086
Qiagen DNA Extraction Buffer Set	Qiagen	19060
QiaRack	Qiagen	19015
qPCR machine (e.g. Roche Light Cycler 480)	Roche
qPCR plate sealing film	Roche	4729757001
qPCR plate, 96 well plate	Roche	4729692001
Qubit assay tubes	Life Technologies	Q32856
Qubit Broad Spectrum assay kit	Life Technologies	Q32850
Qubit High Sensitivity assay kit	Life Technologies	Q32851
RNaseA	Qiagen	19101
Serological pipettes (20 mL) and pipet-aid	Fisher	13-678-11
Small funnels, 1 per sample
Sodium Chloride	Ambion	AM9759
Soft paintbrush, 2 per sample
SPEX SamplePrep 2010 Geno/Grinder or another type of tissue homogenizer	SPEX SamplePrep		Or another comparable tissue homogenizer. If you do not have access to a tissue homogenizer, then grinding in a pre-chilled mortar and pestle will suffice (see protocol for details). However, a homogenizer will give more consistent results and total homogenization time is reduced.
Sucrose	Omnipure	8550
TBE
thermomixer
Tris	Sigma	T2819-100ml
Triton X-100	Promega	H5142
tube rotater
tubes, 50 mL conical polypropylene	Corning	352070
tubes, 50 mL high-speed polypropylene	ThermoScientific/Nalgene	3119-0050	e.g. Nalgene Oakridge tubes or equivalent
vermiculite
water bath
water, sterile and certified Nuclease-free	Fisher	1481
water, sterile milliQ