Screening for Phytoestrogens using a Cell-based Estrogen Receptor β Reporter Assay

Summary

We have optimized a commercially available estrogen receptor β reporter assay for screening human and nonhuman primate foods for estrogenic activity. We validated this assay by showing that the known estrogenic human food soy registers high, while other foods show no activity.

Abstract

Plants are a source of food for many animals, and they can produce thousands of chemicals. Some of these compounds affect physiological processes in the vertebrates that consume them, such as endocrine function. Phytoestrogens, the most well studied endocrine-active phytochemicals, directly interact with the hypothalamo-pituitary gonadal axis of the vertebrate endocrine system. Here we present the novel use of a cell-based assay to screen plant extracts for the presence of compounds that have estrogenic biological activity. This assay uses mammalian cells engineered to highly express estrogen receptor beta (ERβ) and that have been transfected with a luciferase gene. Exposure to compounds with estrogenic activity results in the cells producing light. This assay is a reliable and simple way to test for biological estrogenic activity. It has several improvements over transient transfection assays, most notably, ease of use, the stability of the cells, and the sensitivity of the assay.

Introduction

Plants are a necessary source of food for many animals, providing calories and nutrients critical to survival, reproduction, growth, development, and behavior¹. Plants produce thousands of chemicals, many as adaptations for their own growth, stomatic maintenance, and reproduction. Other compounds, deemed plant secondary metabolites (PSMs), have functions that are less clear, though some are toxic and likely used as a defense against herbivory and parasitism (e.g., alkaloids, tannins)^2,3. Some of these chemicals have the ability to affect long term physiological processes in animals, such as endocrine functioning, although why these endocrine-active phytochemicals interact with the vertebrate endocrine system is still unclear^2,4.

Phytoestrogens, the most well studied endocrine-active phytochemicals, are polyphenolic PSMs that structurally and functionally mimic estrogens, directly interacting with the hypothalomo-pituitary gonadal axis of the vertebrate endocrine system⁵. Ingestion of phytoestrogens in the human diet is associated with protection against some cancers, heart disease, and menopausal symptoms, though other effects include fertility problems. In fact, the physiological effects of these compounds were discovered in the 1940s when infertility in sheep was attributed to their grazing on phytoestrogen-rich clover (Trifolium subterrareum)⁶. When ingested, phytoestrogens can pass into cells and mimic the effects of estrogen. While phytoestrogens had negative effects on sheep fertility, the relationship between phytoestrogens and physiology is not simple. Like sheep, southern white rhinoceros display sensitivity to estrogenic compounds in feed derived from high quantities of soy and alfalfa. Daughters of females fed this diet during pregnancy are less likely to reproduce⁷. However, other studies have shown that phytoestrogens may have positive effects as well, including maturation of ovarian follicles in older mice⁸, prevention of certain cancers, antioxidant activity, and antiproliferative effects⁹.

The breadth of effects of phytoestrogens are not surprising given that estrogens affect a wide array of biological functions, including growth, development, and regulation of the reproductive and central nervous systems¹⁰. Although there are many mechanisms of action, phytoestrogens often have the ability to modify, enhance, or disrupt estrogen signaling through their ability to act as ligands for the intranuclear estrogen receptors alpha and beta (ERα and ERβ). Many phytoestrogens have a phenolic ring structure similar to estrogens that allows them to bind estrogen receptors. Those with agonistic estrogenic activity function like estrogen, forming an activated ER-ligand complex that can dimerize and bind to an estrogen response element (ERE) and trigger gene transcription¹¹. Thus, estrogens and phytoestrogens regulate cell activity and system functions through their actions as transcription factors.

Here we present the novel use of a cell-based assay to screen plant extracts for the presence of compounds that have estrogenic biological activity. This assay uses Chinese hamster ovary CHO cells engineered to highly express ERβ, which have been transfected with the firefly (Photinus pyralis) luciferase gene linked to an ERE promoter¹². When estrogenic compounds are present, they bind to the ER, dimerize, and bind to the ERE, leading to transcription of the luciferase gene. Upon addition of a substrate solution, the luciferase catalyzes a reaction leading to photon emission. Therefore, positive samples produce light and negative samples do not.

This commercially available assay eliminates the need for laboratories to transfect the mammalian cells with the reporter gene and estrogen receptor^13,14, which was unstable and variable in efficacy. The assay provides a stable transfection platform that allows for quickly and simply determining whether a plant has estrogenic activity via receptor binding.

We test the hypothesis that soybeans have higher estrogenic activity than all other foods given their known concentrations of estrogenic isoflavones¹⁵ using human foods from local grocers.

Protocol

1. Preparation of plant materials

1. Freeze dry plant items that were collected fresh using a lyophilizer.
   1. To protect samples from light, cover chambers with aluminum foil during drying process.
   2. To ensure that samples are completely dry, lyophilize until chambers no longer feel cold to touch and plant materials no longer lose mass when weighed.
   3. Store dried plants in sterile low residue bags in absence of light until grinding.
2. Finely grind samples using a grinding mill with 0.85 mm mesh screen.
   1. Store the ground samples in the bags in the absence of light until extraction.

2. Extraction of plant secondary metabolites

1. To extract the secondary plant metabolites, use a ratio of 1 g of dried sample to 10 mL of HPLC grade methanol.
   1. Weigh sample on an analytical balance and add it to an appropriately sized Erlenmeyer flask (125 – 250 mL). Then add appropriate volume of methanol. Record the mass of sample extracted.
   2. Cover the plant-methanol solution with aluminum foil, and then set to rotate at 100 rpm speed at room temperature (RT) for 3 days on an orbital shaker, allowing the potentially estrogenic compounds to dissolve into the methanol.
   3. Decant the supernatant into a drip filtration system using filter paper (125 mm).
   4. Using a rotary evaporator, dry the plant extract until the sample is thickened, but pourable, in a 300 mL round-bottom flask. Pour sample into a 50 mL round-bottom flask, rinsing the large flask with a small amount of methanol. Continue to dry the sample in the small flask until the methanol is completely evaporated.
   5. Weigh the sample residue using an analytical balance. Record residue mass.
   6. Dissolve the plant extract in dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) at a concentration of 0.1 g of extract to 2 mL of DMSO. Vortex until homogenized.
   7. Store the plant extract-DMSO solution at 4 °C in amber glass vials until the assay.

CAUTION: Plants can produce unknown biologically active chemicals, and DMSO is a vehicle that can transport them across cell membranes. Use appropriate personal protective equipment and care when handling these samples.

3. Human estrogen receptor β transfection assay¹²

NOTE: Aseptic technique and a laminar flow hood is required for Day 1 of the assay protocol.

1. Prepare dilutions of 17β-Estradiol for the standard curve.
   1. Transfer the Cell Recovery Medium and Compound Screening Medium (CSM) from the freezer storage and thaw in a 37 °C water bath.
   2. Label microcentrifuge tubes Intermediate 1 and 2 (INT1, INT2) and 1-8.
   3. Fill INT1 with 995 μL of CSM, INT2 with 615 μL of CSM, tube 1 with 900 μL of CSM, and tubes 2-8 with 600 μL of CSM. Set tube 8 aside.
   4. Transfer 5 μL of 100 μM 17β-Estradiol Stock into INT1. Discard the tip. Vortex.
   5. Before each transfer, rinse pipette 3 times, and then transfer 10 μL from INT1 into INT2. Discard the tip.
   6. Rinse pipette 3 times, and then transfer 100 μL from INT2 into tube 1. Discard tip. Transfer 300 μL from tube 1 into tube 2. Repeat for tubes 3 through 7. Discard 300 μL from tube 7 into waste container. Tube 8 is a Zero and does not receive estradiol. Final concentrations of plated standards are: 400, 133.3, 44.44, 14.815, 4.938, 1.646, 0.5487, and 0 pM estradiol.
2. Prepare sample compounds.
   1. Vortex samples.
   2. Take 4 μL of each plant sample in DMSO and add to 496 μL of CSM to yield a 0.8% DMSO solution.
3. Rapidly thaw Reporter Cells.
   1. Retrieve the tube of Cell Recovery Medium from the 37 °C water bath. Disinfect the outside surface using 70% ethanol.
   2. Retrieve Reporter Cells from -80 °C storage and thaw by transferring 10 mL of the pre-warmed CRM into the tube of frozen cells.
   3. Close the tube of Reporter Cells and transfer to a 37°C water bath for 5-10 min.
   4. Retrieve the tube of Reporter Cell Suspension from the water bath. Invert the tube of cells several times gently to break up aggregates of cells and produce a homogenous suspension. Clean the surface of the tube with 70% ethanol.
4. Assay plating
   1. Dispense 100 μL of the Reporter Cell Suspension into each well using a multichannel pipette.
   2. Dispense 100 μL of samples in triplicate into appropriate assay wells.
   3. Transfer the plate into a 37 °C, humidified 5% CO₂ incubator for 22-24 h.
5. Thaw Detection Substrate and Detection Buffer in a dark refrigerator overnight to prepare for Day 2.
6. Just prior to the end of the plate incubation, remove Detection Substrate and Detection Buffer from refrigerator and place in low light area until equilibrated to RT. Once at RT, invert each tube gently several times to thoroughly mix solutions.
   1. Immediately before the incubation is complete, pour the entire contents of the Detection Buffer into the tube of Detection Substrate to create Luciferase Detection Reagent. Mix gently so as not to produce foam.
   2. Once the incubation is complete, invert the plate to discard content into an appropriate waste container. Gently tap the plate on a clean absorbent paper towel to remove the last droplets from the wells.
   3. Add 100 μL of the Luciferase Detection Reagent to each well. Allow the assay plate to rest at RT for 15 min. Do not shake the plate.
7. Quantify luminescence using a 96-well plate-reading luminometer.

Results

Twenty-two extracts of fruits and vegetables commonly found in human diets were screened for the presence of estrogenic compounds. A variety of foods were assayed, including legumes, such as soybeans, snow peas, and snap peas, as the pea family is a known source of phytoestrogens¹⁶, as well as figs, dates, corn, carrots, apples, bananas, strawberries, tomato, kale, and cabbage. Endocrine disrupting compounds are found in common substances (e.g., plastics and pesticides) and some are biologically a...

Discussion

The ERβ reporter assay developed to individually screen pharmaceutical agents is also suitable for screening plant foods for phytoestrogens biologically active through the ERβ. Important considerations in the protocol include treating the plant samples with care: fresh plant material needs to be dried swiftly to prevent molding or other biological degradation, and it needs to be kept away from light to prevent photolysis of the compounds¹⁸. The assay protocol¹²

Materials

List of materials used in this article

Name	Company	Catalog Number	Comments
1000 µL pipette
20 µL pipette
200 µL pipette
37 ° water bath
37 °, humidified 5% CO2 incubator
70% ethanol
analytical balance
cell culture-rated laminar flow hood
dimethyl sulfoxide
disposable media basin, sterile
drip filtration system
Erlenmeyer flasks			125 mL and 250 mL
HPLC grade methanol
Human ERβ Reporter Assay System, 1 x 96-well format assays	Indigo Biosciences	IB00411	Assay kit - analyzes 24 samples plus standard curve
lyophilizer
multi-channel pipette
orbital shaker
plate-reading luminometer			ex. Bioteck Synergy HTX
rotory evaporator
round bottom flasks			50 mL and 300 mL
sterile microcentrifuge tubes or sterile multi-channel media basins
sterile tips			200 µL and 1000 µL
Whatman grade 1 paper
whirl-pak bags			sterile polyethylene bags