Executive Function in Autism Spectrum Disorder
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Overview
资料来源： 乔纳斯 · 卡普兰和莎拉一、 贝尔实验室 — — 南加利福尼亚大学
注意、 工作记忆、 规划、 控制冲动、 抑制作用和心理灵活性是人类认知往往被称为行政职能的重要组成部分。自闭症谱系障碍是一种发展的障碍，其特点是在社会互动、 沟通和重复性行为障碍。它是一种疾病，会持续一生，并且被认为影响人口的 0.6%。自闭症的症状建议执行的功能，可以通过专门的心理测试评估中的赤字。采用每个强调执行功能的不同方面的几个测试，我们可以获得更全面地了解这种疾病的认知特征。
此类任务，知道作为威斯康星卡片分类测试 (WCST)，是在研究和临床研究中广泛使用，作为一种高度敏感的执行功能中的赤字措施复杂的认知任务。它测试一个人的能力，将注意力转移，并测试其灵活性与改变的规则和加固。1在威斯康星卡片分类测验，参与者提出了四个刺激卡，纳入三个刺激参数： 颜色、 形状和数量。参与者被要求排序响应卡根据不同的原理，改变其分类的标准，基于实验者的反馈。与会者试用不同的规则，直到他们找到整理卡片的正确方法。执行功能障碍患者往往陷入卡片分类任务，无法更改其排序策略。这种持久性与不正确的战略被称为执拗。
第二个任务，伦敦塔 (ToL) 是一个测试依赖于复杂的规划、 重新评估和更新的计划好的行动。自闭症有报道就受损对涉及规划任务。2在 ToL 任务，个人必须移动磁盘从一个预先安排好的序列上三钉以匹配在尽可能少动作为可能，以下具体规则的目标状态。
第三个任务，称为 Stroop 测试，目标认知抑制能力。在此任务中与会者显示颜色的名称，写在不同的颜色，并被要求辨认的颜色的字写在。例如，在不一致的情况下，将绿色写词蓝色。个人有抑制困难不应执行以及通常发育的个体对这项任务，涉及文字的抑制作用。
在这个视频中，我们表明如何管理 WCST、 ToL 和 Stroop 任务灵活性、 规划、 和抑制通常发展同行，与自闭症谱系障碍的儿童进行比较，并探讨每个组对这些不同的方面的执行功能的执行。
Procedure
Results
Individuals with autism perform significantly worse on tests of mental flexibility and planning, but do not show a difference from typically developing individuals in tests of inhibition (Figure 4). 6 In the WCST, a test measuring mental flexibility, individuals with autism are less able to set-shift, adjusting to a new sorting rule mid-task (i.e., they make more perseverative errors). Consistent deficits have been found in the total number of categories correctly identified and the total number of errors made (Figure 4, left). The ToL test can be used to examine specific aspects of difficulty in planning. Even though the autistic group was impaired in relation to the control group (Figure 4, middle), this deficit was evident only on puzzles that required longer sequences of moves. On the classic Stroop test of inhibition, autistic participants were not impaired in comparison to typically developing participants (Figure 4, right). In summary, autistic and normally developing children show a difference in performance on tasks of planning and mental flexibility, but not on this task of inhibition.
Figure 4. Performance on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST), Tower of London test (ToL) and Stroop task. Participants in the autism group (blue) were more impaired on the WCST and ToL tests, but there was no difference between the autism group and control group (red) in the Stroop task.
Applications and Summary
This cognitive battery of tasks to examine executive function could possibly be used as a diagnostic marker for autism. While there are many disorders of executive function, it is possible that the pattern of performance on different tests examining different components of executive function may lead to a dissociation between different disorders. Executive function disorders such as autism, ADHD, Tourette’s syndrome, and conduct disorder may have differing executive profiles in regard to these, and related, tasks. If a specific, yet differential, profile of executive dysfunction can be identified in these disorders, then it could be possible to use measures of executive function as a marker for the diagnosis of autism. Furthermore, understanding the specific profile of cognitive disabilities in this disorder can help develop more targeted rehabilitation and training programs.
References
- Grant, D. A. and Berg, E. A. (1948). A behavioural analysis of degree of reinforcement and ease of shifting to new responses in a Weigl-type card sorting problem. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 38, 404-411.
- Ozonoff, S. et al. (1991) Executive function deficits in high-functioning autistic individuals: relationship to theory of mind. J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry 32, 1081-1105
- Lord, C., Rutter, M., & Le Couteur, A. (1994). Autism Diagnostic Interview-Revised: A revised version of a diagnostic interview for caregivers of individuals with possible pervasive developmental disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Dis- orders, 24, 659-685.
- Lord, C., Rutter, M. L., Goode, S., Heemsbergen, J., Jordan, H., Mawhood, L., & Schopler, E. (1989). Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule: A standardized observation of communicative and social behavior. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 19, 185-212.
- Heaton, R. K. (1981). Wisconsin Card Sorting Test Manual. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc.
- Hill, E. L. (2004). Executive Dysfunction in Autism. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 8(1), 26-32.
Transcript
Autism Spectrum Disorder is characterized by impairments in communication and executive function, with an onset that is often noted during early childhood.
Across normal development, children improve their executive processes, which include: flexibility—adapting thoughts in response to a changing environment; planning—the actions needed to attain a specific goal, and inhibition—being able to stop what they’re doing
However, in this social situation, the child who showed difficulty executing those functions—the one who didn’t go inside to get a coat because he kept waving a stick around—is an example of someone with components indicative of Autism Spectrum Disorder.
This video demonstrates how to perform a series of behavioral tests that tap into the processes of executive function in the laboratory, as well as how to analyze the data and interpret results in children diagnosed with Autism Spectrum Disorder compared to those without any known developmental disorders.
In this experiment, children with Autism Spectrum Disorder along with typically developing counterparts ages 6 to 18 are asked to complete three tasks—the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test, the Tower of London, and the Stroop Task—that measure different components of executive function.
In the first task, the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test, children are presented with four stimulus cards that incorporate three stimulus patterns: color, shape, and number.
They are asked to sort response cards according to one of these parameters, but the trick here is that they must figure out the sorting rule based on the feedback provided after matching each one.
Participants try sorting by color, shape, or number until they find the acceptable rule, which is applied for a run of 10 correct placements and then changed without warning.
The dependent variable then is the number of responses in which the participant continues to sort based on the previously correct rule, despite feedback that it was incorrect. This is known as perseveration: focusing on the same response even though it may not lead to an advantageous outcome.
The second task is the Tower of London, where participants must move disks from a prearranged sequence on three pegs to match a goal state in as few steps as possible. In this case, the dependent variable is number of moves made that surpass the minimum number necessary.
The third and final task is the Stroop test, where participants are asked to say out loud the colors of presented words. The colored terms are equally divided into either congruent trials—where the name and font color match, or incongruent ones—the two features are mismatched, for example, the word green is colored blue.
Here, the dependent variable is the time it takes for participants to say the correct color. Responses in the incongruent condition tend to be slower than congruent trials because participants must inhibit reading the word, which is fast and automatic, in favor of saying the actual color of the letters.
The symptoms of Autism Spectrum Disorder suggest deficiencies in the executive functions required to complete the three tasks. It is predicted that participants already diagnosed with the disorder will not have the same flexibility as controls with changing rules in the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test.
Likewise, they are also expected to demonstrate poor planning when solving the Tower of London, and reduced cognitive inhibition to correctly complete the Stroop test, compared to aged-matched and typically developing participants.
To begin, greet the recruited participant and have them sit comfortably in front of a computer. Note that all participants should be age- and intellect-matched. After gaining parental approval, guide them through the consent forms.
Now, explain to each participant that they will complete three tasks: first is the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test, where they have to match a single card to one of the four displayed on the screen. Elaborate that the cards can match in either color, shape, or number and that they will be told if their guess was correct or not.
Further inform them that, from time to time, the rule will change without notice and that they will have to discover the switch on their own to get as many as possible correct. Answer any questions they might have.
Then, start the task, and allow the participant time to complete the trials, which depends on either six runs of 10 correct placements or until all 64 cards have been sorted. When the task ends, provide them with a 2-min break.
Once the break is over, have the participant sit down again. Explain that the second task—the Tower of London—involves rearranging the configuration of three colored balls located on three pegs, and that their objective is to match the goal configuration in the shortest number of moves.
Also inform them that they should preplan the series of moves and to remember that a transfer cannot be undone. Following the instructions, allow them to complete 20 trials, using the mouse to execute their intended movements.
After another 2-min break, start the third and final test—the Stroop Task. Explain that in this case, a word will be displayed on the screen for up to 4 s, with 1.5 s in between each, and they are to say out loud, the color that the word is written in.
Note that the computer program logs reaction times based on the onset of the spoken color, over the course of 120 trials. You’ll still need to quickly record the participant’s verbalized responses and whether they are correct or not, between word presentations.
To analyze the data, evaluate each task individually: for the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test, determine the average number of perseveration responses; for the Tower of London, calculate the average number of excessive moves beyond the minimum required to solve each puzzle; and for the Stroop Task, average the difference in reaction times for naming the words in the incongruent compared to the congruent condition.
Plot the results for both control and autistic spectrum individuals across all tasks. First, in the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test, notice that participants with autism were less able to set-shift, or adjust to a new sorting rule mid-task.
In other words, they tended to get stuck in the card-sorting task and were unable to change their sorting strategy, which resulted in more perseverative errors.
In the Tower of London test, the autistic spectrum participants showed a deficit in the ability to solve the puzzle using the minimum number of moves, suggesting impairments in planning.
As for the Stroop test, both groups had the same reaction times, indicating that cognitive inhibition was not affected.
Now that you are familiar with several tests of executive function, let’s look at how such batteries could be used to diagnose and differentiate disorders with cognitive dysfunctions and possibly even lead to rehabilitation in these individuals.
While there are many neurodevelopmental disorders with impairments of executive function, including Autism, ADHD, and Tourette’s Syndrome, they may have differing executive profiles. For instance, as we’ve shown here, those with Autism Spectrum Disorders show deficits in the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test and Tower of London.
In contrast, children with ADHD demonstrate impairments in the Tower of London and Stroop Task, whereas those with Tourette’s Syndrome primarily display deficits in the Stroop Task.
Thus, if specific, yet differential, patterns of cognitive dysfunction can be identified across disorders, series of behavioral measures could be used as indicators during diagnosis.
In addition, understanding the cognitive differences amongst different disorders can lead to the development of more targeted rehabilitation programs, like using transcranial direct current stimulation.
Brain regions can be targeted, like the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, before and after behavioral tasks. That way, researchers can measure whether stimulation enhances executive function, providing a promising approach for rehabilitating a number of disorders with distinct neural underpinnings.
You’ve just watched JoVE’s introduction to executive function in Autism Spectrum Disorder. Now you should have a good understanding of how to design and run a Wisconsin Card Sorting Test, the Tower of London test and the Stroop test, as well as how to analyze and assess the results.
Thanks for watching!