This paper describes how to perform cardiopulmonary bypass in mice. This novel model will facilitate the investigation of the molecular mechanisms involved in organ damage.
As prolonged cardiopulmonary bypass becomes more essential during cardiac interventions, an increasing clinical demand arises for procedure optimization and for minimizing organ damage resulting from prolonged extracorporal circulation. The goal of this paper was to demonstrate a fully functional and clinically relevant model of cardiopulmonary bypass in a mouse. We report on the device design, perfusion circuit optimization, and microsurgical techniques. This model is an acute model, which is not compatible with survival due to the need for multiple blood drawings. Because of the range of tools available for mice (e.g., markers, knockouts, etc.), this model will facilitate investigation into the molecular mechanisms of organ damage and the effect of cardiopulmonary bypass in relation to other comorbidities.
Since the introduction of cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB) into the clinic, it has played an essential role in cardiac surgery1. In modern cardiac surgery, prolonged CPB time is essential to perform extensive aortic reconstructions and combined procedures. Although technological advances have been tremendous, the use of extracorporal circulation is associated with intra- and postoperative systemic and local organ damage2,3.
Large animal models have been developed to investigate the role of CPB on physiological processes4,5. Although these models have provided insight into some of the CPB associated complications, they are extremely costly and molecular tools (e.g., antibodies) are very limited. A more cost-efficient alternative has been developed in small animals. Since their development, multiple studies have been conducted to optimize a CPB model in rats and rabbits5,6,7,8,9. These models provide a good basis for measurements of pathophysiological disease processes; however, they are still insufficient to investigate cellular and humoral immunology due to the lack of relevant antibodies and reagents. This impairs their role in this field of research.
We have recently developed a mouse model of CPB. Due to a wide variety of mouse-specific reagents and genetically-modified mice, mouse models are in general the model of choice for physiological, molecular, and immunological research10,11. Therefore, our model will facilitate the study of CPB in relation to various comorbidities as there are many mice strains available with clinically-relevant diseases12,13. Accordingly, this paper describes, in detail, how to perform CPB in mice. Oxygen and hemodynamic parameters are closely monitored after deep respiratory and circulatory arrest.
All animal experiments were performed in compliance with the German Animal Protection Law (TierSchG) and were approved by the local animal welfare committee (Lower Saxony State Office for Consumer Protection and Food Safety, Protocol TSA 14/1556). The minimal weight of mouse suitable for this model is 25 g.
1. Preoperative Preparations
NOTE: All procedures are carried out under clean, non-sterile conditions, with autoclaved instruments.
2. Animal Anesthesia
3. Surgical Procedures
4. Cardiopulmonary Bypass and Blood Gas Analysis
This protocol describes the perfusion circuit, surgical procedures, and monitoring of physiological parameters during CPB of a mouse. When performed by an adequately skilled microsurgeon, the results are consistently and reproducibly obtained.
To maintain adequate tissue perfusion, the mean arterial pressure is always kept between 40 and 60 mmHg by adjusting the CPB blood flow and adding of extra volume. Depending on the weight of the animal, its volume status, and body temperature, the extracorporal blood flow is maintained between 2.3 – 6.5 mL/min. Correction of volume loss during the experiment is achieved by adding of 0.1 mL of priming solution to the circuit during CPB. Systemic pH stabilization is achieved by adding 8.4 mmol/L of NaHCO2. All fluids are administered via the air-trapping reservoir to reduce risk of air embolization.
Physiological parameters were assessed using BGA at four different time points (Figure 1) and the measurements from a representative successful CPB procedure are presented in Table 1.
Hematocrit measurements show hemodilution due to the addition of priming volume to the circuit (Table 1). There was, however, no need for blood transfusion as hemoglobin levels were maintained at sufficient levels during the course of the experiment (Table 1). Systemic arterial pO2, oxygen saturation, pCO2 expiration values validated excellent functioning of the micro-oxygenator (Table 1). pCO2 expiration was optimal using an oxygen/air mixture at FiO2 0.8.
BGA also provided insight into the metabolic status of the animal during CPB. After initiation of CPB with ventilation, arterial pH was elevated (Table 1). This effect is often lessened once respiratory arrest is initiated. A gradual reduction in pH during the course of the experiment was seen (Table 1). Continuous buffering of arterial pH and lactate was necessary to compensate for acidosis.
Figure 1: Experimental Timeline. Timing of intubation, ventilation, respiratory arrest, CPB, cardiac arrest, reperfusion, cooling/re-warming, and BGA sampling points. Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.
BGA1 | BGA2 | BGA3 | BGA4 | |
Hemoglobin (g/dl) | 8.9 | 6.8 | 6.8 | 5.6 |
Hematocrit | 27.5 | 21.2 | 21.3 | 17.7 |
pO2 (mmHg) | 508 | 506 | 504 | 271 |
pCO2 (mmHg) | 24.5 | 20.3 | 20 | 36.4 |
sO2 (%) | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 |
pH | 7.56 | 7.65 | 7.36 | 7.32 |
Lactate (mmol/L) | 2.6 | 3.1 | 3 | 6.9 |
Table 1: Representative BGA Results from a Successful CPB in a Mouse. BGA taken at four different time points over the course of an experiment.
Figure 2: Schematic Diagram of the CPB Circuit in the Mouse. A venous cannula (blue) is placed in the inferior vena cava via the right jugular vein and an arterial cannula (red) in the aorta via the left carotid artery. Oxygenated blood is pumped through the air-trapper reservoir into the left carotid artery. ECG electrodes are placed subcutaneously, body temperature is measured rectally, and pressure is monitored via the femoral artery. Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.
We have developed a fully-functioning clinically-relevant model of CPB in a mouse. With more than thirty strains of mice having cardiovascular diseases, our model could be a starting point for development of new prospective protocols related to CPB. Moreover, due to the plethora of mouse-specific reagents and knockout-out mice, this model can not only replace the current rat model of CPB but will facilitate dissection of the molecular mechanisms involved in CPB-related organ damage. To date, CPB has not been applied in mice due to microsurgical challenges in cannulation technique, as well as technical challenges including the development of a micro-oxygenator having a sufficiently small priming volume. Approximately 90 trails and the diligent work of an experienced microsurgeon were needed to achieve a stable model. Over 15 prototypes of the CPB machine having different roller pumps, tubing, and diverse reservoirs were tested and constantly improved. More than 10 versions of different oxygenators were built and tested to achieve the current results. Our novel model required a complete redesign of the existing rat model setup of extracorporal circulation. Firstly, we built the smallest possible micro-oxygenator allowing priming volumes <0.3 mL. The oxygenator was redesigned using an inverted system where blood flows through the hollow fibers and not between them, allowing for a significant reduction in priming volume.
During the development of our model we encountered several technical difficulties. Our first prototype circuits required large priming volumes of up to 6 mL. This resulted in extreme hemodilution with hemoglobin values below 4 g/dL and hematocrit values of approximately 15. Despite BGA showing good oxygenation we observed signs of hypoxemia leading to rapid cardiac arrest during the procedure. In order to achieve proper tissue oxygenation, hematocrit values should be above 25. By adjusting the tubing size, altering the design of the roller-pump, producing a miniaturized air trapper, and optimizing venous and arterial cannulas, the priming volume was significantly reduced to <0.9 mL.
Despite adequate perfusion flow of 4 – 6 mL/min, providing sufficient venous back flow is essential. Placement of the venous cannula in the right atrium or, even better, in the right ventricle, alleviates this problem. Increasing the perfusion flow leads to either sucking of the venous cannula or overperfusion-related loss of fluid and tissue edema. To avoid CO2 retention in the mouse, which has a fast metabolism, we found that keeping the oxygen supply through the oxygenator at FiO2 80% with a flow of 600 mL/min is optimal for tissue oxygenation.
Another issue one can encounter is gradual loss of intravascular volume to the interstitium, necessitating repeat volume substitution every 30 – 40 min. The hyperosmolarity of electrolyte solutions containing hydroxyethyl starch (HES) prevents intravascular volume loss, but when used exclusively, its high viscosity causes an enormous increase in systemic pressure during CPB. This leads to leakage in the oxygenator and the tubing proximal to the arterial cannula. Therefore, to achieve a balance between hyperosmolarity and moderate viscosity, a 1:1 mixture of HES-containing solutions and another isotonic balanced fluid was found to be optimal.
The driving electronics of the roller pump were modified to increase the rotation speed thus allowing sufficient flow within the small diameter tubes.Under the strong suction produced by the roller-pump, it is typical to have microscopic air-bubbles in the venous system. Construction of a miniaturized air trapper with priming volume below 0.15 mL resolved this problem. Adding 0.1 mL of extra volume and reducing CPB flow in addition to checking the correct placement of the venous cannula eliminated air embolism in the circuit.
To test the technical feasibility of a novel cardiopulmonary bypass model, multiple blood samplings are required. Removing more than 0.2 mL of blood is usually lethal for a healthy mouse. To assure oxygen and hemodynamic stability, the amount of blood samplings in our experiment was far beyond this value and almost reached 0.9 mL at the end of the experiment. Nevertheless, stable oxygenation and hemodynamic parameters were observed despite the constant decrease in hematological values. Therefore, our initial feasibility model was primarily designed as an acute, non-survival protocol. We are now developing a minimally invasive survival model that, by necessity, will have less blood sampling.
The authors have nothing to disclose.
The authors have no acknowledgements.
Sterofundin | B.Braun Petzold GmbH | PZN:8609189 | priming volume, 1:1 with Tetraspan |
Tetraspan 6% HES Solution | B. Braun Melsungen AG | PZN: 05565416 | priming volume, 1:1 with Sterofundin |
Heparin Natrium 25.000 | Ratiopharm GmbH | PZN: 3029843 | 2.5 IU per ml of priming solution |
NaHCO3 8,4% Solution | B. Braun Melsungen AG | PZN: 1579775 | 3% in priming solution |
KCL 7,45 % Solution | B. Braun Melsungen AG | PZN: 2418577 | 0.1 ml for cardioplegia |
Carprofen | Zoetis Inc., USA | PZN:00289615 08859153 | 5 mg/kg/BW |
1 Fr PU Catheter | Instechlabs INC., USA | C10PU-MCA1301 | carotid artery |
2 Fr PU Catheter | Instechlabs INC., USA | C20PU-MJV1302 | jugular vein |
Vasofix Safety catheter 20G | B.Braun Medical | 4268113S-01 | orotracheal intubation |
8-0 Silk suture braided | Ashaway Line & Twine Mfg. Co., USA | 75290 | ligature |
Isoflurane | Piramal Critical Care Deutschland GmbH | PZN:9714675 | narcosis |
CLINITUBES blood capillaries | Radiomed GmbH | 51750132 | blood sampling 60 – 95 microliter |
Spring Scissors – 6mm Blades | Fine Science Tools GmbH | 15020-15 | instruments |
Spring Scissors – 2mm Blades | Fine Science Tools GmbH | 15000-03 | instruments |
Halsted-Mosquito Hemostat | Fine Science Tools GmbH | 13009-12 | instruments |
Dumont #55 Forceps | Fine Science Tools GmbH | 11295-51 | instruments |
Castroviejo Micro Needle Holder – 9cm | Fine Science Tools GmbH | 12060-02 | instruments |
Micro Serrefines | Fine Science Tools GmbH | 18555-01 | instruments |
Bulldog Serrefine | Fine Science Tools GmbH | 18050-28 | instruments |
MiniVent Ventilator for Mice (Model 845) | Harvard Apparatus | 73-0044 | mechanical ventilation |
Isoflurane Vaporizer Drager 19.1 | Drägerwerk AG & Co. KGaA | anesthesia 1.3 -2.5% | |
PowerLab data acquisition device 4/35 | ADInstruments Ltd, New Zealand | PL3504 | invasive pressure, ECG, temperature |
ABL 800 Flex | Radiometer GmbH | blood gas analysis | |
NMRI mice | Charles River Laboratories | Crl:NMRI(Han) | male, 30-35 g, 12 weeks old, housed at least 1 week before the experiment |