Microtensiometer for Confocal Microscopy Visualization of Dynamic Interfaces

Summary

This manuscript describes the design and operation of a microtensiometer/confocal microscope to do simultaneous measurements of interfacial tension and surface dilatational rheology while visualizing the interfacial morphology. This provides the real-time construction of structure-property relationships of interfaces important in technology and physiology.

Abstract

Adsorption of surface-active molecules to fluid-fluid interfaces is ubiquitous in nature. Characterizing these interfaces requires measuring surfactant adsorption rates, evaluating equilibrium surface tensions as a function of bulk surfactant concentration, and relating how surface tension changes with changes in the interfacial area following equilibration. Simultaneous visualization of the interface using fluorescence imaging with a high-speed confocal microscope allows the direct evaluation of structure-function relationships. In the capillary pressure microtensiometer (CPM), a hemispherical air bubble is pinned at the end of the capillary in a 1 mL volume liquid reservoir. The capillary pressure across the bubble interface is controlled via a commercial microfluidic flow controller that allows for model-based pressure, bubble curvature, or bubble area control based on the Laplace equation. Compared to previous techniques such as the Langmuir trough and pendant drop, the measurement and control precision and response time are greatly enhanced; capillary pressure variations can be applied and controlled in milliseconds. The dynamic response of the bubble interface is visualized via a second optical lens as the bubble expands and contracts. The bubble contour is fit to a circular profile to determine the bubble curvature radius, R, as well as any deviations from circularity that would invalidate the results. The Laplace equation is used to determine the dynamic surface tension of the interface. Following equilibration, small pressure oscillations can be imposed by the computer-controlled microfluidic pump to oscillate the bubble radius (frequencies of 0.001-100 cycles/min) to determine the dilatational modulus The overall dimensions of the system are sufficiently small that the microtensiometer fits under the lens of a high-speed confocal microscope allowing fluorescently tagged chemical species to be quantitatively tracked with submicron lateral resolution.

Introduction

Air-water interfaces covered by surfactant films are ubiquitous in daily life. Surfactant-water injections are used to enhance oil recovery from depleted fields and are used as hydraulic fracturing solutions for shale gas and oil. Gas-liquid foams and liquid-liquid emulsions are common to many industrial and scientific processes as lubricants and cleaning agents and are common in food. Surfactants and proteins at interfaces stabilize antibody conformations during packaging, storage, and administration^1,2,3,4,5

Protocol

1. Preparation of capillary tubes

1. Place the capillary into a capillary puller and run the desired pulling program to make two tapered capillaries with an outside diameter (OD) of ~1 µm at the tip.
   NOTE: The OD of the capillary before pulling must be the OD specified to fit in the capillary holder in the microtensiometer cell. The inner diameter (ID) of the capillary can vary, but will affect the critical radius of the capillary following pulling. A pulling program is chosen so that the resulting taper initially reduces the capillary OD and ID quickly, then reaches a radius near the desired capillary OD and ID, and then reduces ....

Results

A major source of measurement error arises from the capillaries that have defects either from the cutting process (Figure 5A,B) or the coating process (Figure 5D). Both types of defects lead to errors in determining the bubble shape and size by the optical image analysis system, leading to inaccurate surface tension values. It is important to carefully examine each new capillary after it is pulled and coated under the optical microscope before i.......

Discussion

The combined CPM/CFM is a powerful tool for examining interfacial dynamics, equilibria, and morphology. This protocol describes the steps necessary for obtaining data with CPM/CFM.

Figure 2 shows the cell design with channels for the capillary, solvent, and heat exchange indicated. The inlet for solvent exchange should be at the bottom of the cell while the outlet should be at the top, allowing for the cell to not overflow during the exchange. In practice, the inl.......

Materials

List of materials used in this article

Name	Company	Catalog Number	Comments
1.5 O.D. Tygon tubing	Fischer Scientific		Tubing
A1RHD Multiphoton upright confocal microscope	Nikon		Confocal Microscope
Acid Cleaning Solution			Sulfuric acid and Alnochromix diluted with water 50% by volume, wait until clear befor diluting
Alnochromix	Alconox	2510	Mixed with sulfuric acid to package instructionand diluted to make acid cleaning solution
Ceramic glass cutter	Sutter Instruments
Chloroform	Sigma-Aldrich	650471	HPLC Plus
Curosurf	Chiesi		Lung Surfactant
Di Water			18.5 MΩ - cm
Ethanol	any		200 proof used for hydrophobization, denatured used for cleaning
Fiber-Lite Model 190 fiber optic illuminator	Dolan-Jenner Industries Inc.	281900100	Light source; other light sources should work as well
Flow EZ F69 mbar w/Link Module	Fluigent	LU-FEZ-0069	Microfluidic Pump
Fluigent SDK VIs	Fluigent		Required for CPM virtual Interface
Fluoroelastomer gaskets			Machined from 1 mm thick Viton sheet, See figure 3
Gas filter	Norgren	F07-100-A3TG	Put between microfluidic pump and pressure regulator
Gas regulator	Norgren	10R0400R	Steps down pressure from sorce to range of pump, connected to gas filter range 2-120 psi
Glass Capilary	Sutter Instruments	B150-86-10	Borosilicate glass O.D. 1.5 mm I.D. 0.86 mm
Glass Slide	any		75 mm x 25 mm
Glass Syringe	Hamilton	84878	25 μL glass syringe
Hydrophobizing Agent	Sigma-Aldrich	667420	1H,1H,2H,2H-Perfluoro-octyltriethoxysilane 98%, other hydrophobic triethoxysilane can be substituted
Insoluble surfactant	Avanti	850355C-200mg	16:0 DPPC in chloroform
LabVIEW Software	National Instruments		2017
Longpass Filter	ThorLabs	FEL0650	650 nm Longpass filter, wavelength must remove excitation lazer frequence
Lyso-PC	Avanti	855675P	16:0 Lyso PC 1-palmitoyl-2-hydroxy-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine
Masterflex L/S variable speed analog consol pump system w/  Easy-Load II pump head	Masterflex	HV-77916-20	Peristaltic Pump
MATLAB	Mathworks		R2019
Micropipette Puller P-1000	Sutter Instruments		Capillary Puller
Microtensiometer Cell and Holder			Cell machined from PEEK, holder machined from aluminum, See Figure 3 and 4
Microtensiometer Objective	Nikon		Fluor 20x/0.50W DIC M/N2 ∞/0 WD 2.0 mm
NI Vision Development Module	National Instruments		Required for CPM virtual Interface
PEEK finger tight fittings	IDEX	F-120x	10-32 Coned Ports
PEEK plug	IDEX	P-551	10-31 Coned Ports
pippette tips	Eppendorf	22492225	100 μL - 1000 μL, Autoclaved
Plastic Forceps	Thermo Scientific	6320-0010
Plastic Syringe	Fischer Scientific	14-955-459	10 mL
Plumbing parts	Fischer Scientific		3-way valves and other plumbing parts to connect tubing.
Research Plus 1-channel 100 μL–1000 μL	Eppendorf	3123000063	Micro pipetter
Sulfuric Acid	any		Used for acid cleaning solution
T Plan SLWD 20x/0.30 OFN25 WD 30 mm	Nikon		Confocal Microscope Objective
Texas Red DHPE triethylammonim salt	Thermo Fischer Scientific	1395MP	Fluorophore
Vaccum Pump	Gast	DOA-P704-AA