Experimental Quantification of Interactions Between Drug Delivery Systems and Cells In Vitro: A Guide for Preclinical Nanomedicine Evaluation

Summary

A workflow is demonstrated for the absolute quantification of drug carrier-cell interactions using flow cytometry to allow better rational evaluation of novel drug delivery systems. This workflow is applicable to drug carriers of any type.

Abstract

A major component of designing drug delivery systems concerns how to amplify or attenuate interactions with specific cell types. For instance, a chemotherapeutic might be functionalized with an antibody to enhance binding to cancer cells ("targeting") or functionalized with polyethylene glycol to help evade immune cell recognition ("stealth"). Even at a cellular level, optimizing the binding and uptake of a drug carrier is a complex biological design problem. Thus, it is valuable to separate how strongly a new carrier interacts with a cell from the functional efficacy of a carrier's cargo once delivered to that cell.

To continue the chemotherapeutic example, "how well it binds to a cancer cell" is a separate problem from "how well it kills a cancer cell". Quantitative in vitro assays for the latter are well established and usually rely on measuring viability. However, most published research on cell-carrier interactions is qualitative or semiquantitative. Generally, these measurements rely on fluorescent labeling of the carrier and, consequently, report interactions with cells in relative or arbitrary units. However, this work can be standardized and be made absolutely quantitative with a small number of characterization experiments. Such absolute quantification is valuable, as it facilitates rational, inter- and intra-class comparisons of various drug delivery systems-nanoparticles, microparticles, viruses, antibody-drug conjugates, engineered therapeutic cells, or extracellular vesicles.

Furthermore, quantification is a prerequisite for subsequent meta-analyses or in silico modeling approaches. In this article, video guides, as well as a decision tree for how to achieve in vitro quantification for carrier drug delivery systems, are presented, which take into account differences in carrier size and labeling modality. Additionally, further considerations for the quantitative assessment of advanced drug delivery systems are discussed. This is intended to serve as a valuable resource to improve rational evaluation and design for the next generation of medicine.

Introduction

The design of drug delivery constructs that exhibit specific, designed behavior depending on what cell type they encounter has attracted substantial research interest. Potential drug delivery constructs or "carriers" include lipid formulations, nano-grown inorganics, polymeric assemblies, extracellular vesicles, functionalized bacterial cells, or modified viruses. All of these can exhibit organ, tissue, or cell specificity due to physical properties, surface properties, or engineered chemical functionalizations such as antibody attachment^1,2.

A nearly ubiquitous step in ....

Protocol

1. Choosing the appropriate stream

1. Follow the decision tree outlined in Figure 1 to determine the best workflow (stream) (Figure 2) for the experimental setup used. Refer to the discussion for further comments on this choice of stream.
2. If following the Cytometer Stream, continue with steps 2.1.1-2.2.7. If following the Bulk Stream, continue with steps 3.1.1.1-3.1.5.7.

Results

As discussed previously, different drug carrier types require the use of different techniques for the absolute quantification of cell-carrier association. For example, 633 nm disulfide-stabilized poly(methacrylic acid) (PMA_SH) core-shell particles are large and dense enough for detection using a sensitive flow cytometer. As such, these particles were labeled fluorescently, then gated and counted using side-angle light scattering (SALS, analogous to SSC), as well as the appropriate fluorescent channel (

Discussion

Characterizing the interactions between drug carriers and cells is becoming increasingly important in the development of novel drug delivery systems. Specifically, to allow the rational evaluation and comparison of various carrier constructs, absolute quantification of the performance of said carrier to interact with target and off-target cells is critical. This protocol describes a two-stream methodology that allows any researcher working with a drug carrier to convert relative, semiquantitative flow cytometry data on c.......

Materials

List of materials used in this article

Name	Company	Catalog Number	Comments
Alexa Fluor 647 C2 Maleimide	Invitrogen	A20347	pH-stable dye used to label 150 nm, 235 nm, or 633 nm PMASH carriers; example of good dye to use in cell-carrier association studies
Apogee A50 Microflow	Apogee		Sensitive flow cytometer capable of detecting small carriers for counting
CytoFLEX S Flow Cytometer	Beckman Coulter		Sensitive flow cytometer capable of detecting small carriers for counting and read out for final cell-barrier experiments
FCS Express	De Novo Software		Software used to analyze flow cytometry data, i.e., perform gating and derive median fluorescence intensity values of populations of choice. Alternatives include FlowJo, OMIQ, Python
Infinite 200 PRO	Tecan Lifesciences		Standard microplate reader instrument used for bulk fluorescence measurements of carriers in solution
LSRFortessa Cell Analyzer	BD Biosciences		Less sensitive flow cytometer, but one more generally available to researchers. Can be used to read out final cell-carrier experiment
NanoSight NS300	Malvern Panalytical		Instrument used for Nanoparticle Tracking Analysis
Prism 8	GraphPad		Software used to graph and calculate standard curves. Alternatives include Microsoft Excel, Origin, Minitab, Python amongst many others
Quantum MESF kits Alexa Fluor 647	Bangs Laboratories	647	Absolute quantitation beads for flow cytometery. Used to convert fluorescence intensities measured in bulk on a microplate reader to fluorescence intensities measured on a flow cytometer using the MESF standard