This paper presents a method involving the synthesis and characterization of monocyte-targeting peptide amphiphile micelles and the corresponding assays to test for biocompatibility and ability of the micelle to bind to monocytes.
Atherosclerosis is a major contributor to cardiovascular disease, the leading cause of death worldwide, which claims 17.3 million lives annually. Atherosclerosis is also the leading cause of sudden death and myocardial infarction, instigated by unstable plaques that rupture and occlude the blood vessel without warning. Current imaging modalities cannot differentiate between stable and unstable plaques that rupture. Peptide amphiphiles micelles (PAMs) can overcome this drawback as they can be modified with a variety of targeting moieties that bind specifically to diseased tissue. Monocytes have been shown to be early markers of atherosclerosis, while large accumulation of monocytes is associated with plaques prone to rupture. Hence, nanoparticles that can target monocytes can be used to discriminate different stages of atherosclerosis. To that end, here, we describe a protocol for the preparation of monocyte-targeting PAMs (monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) PAMs). MCP-1 PAMs are self-assembled through synthesis under mild conditions to form nanoparticles of 15 nm in diameter with near neutral surface charge. In vitro, PAMs were found to be biocompatible and had a high binding affinity for monocytes. The methods described herein show promise for a wide range of applications in atherosclerosis as well as other inflammatory diseases.
Cardiovascular diseases remain to be the leading causes of death globally with approximately 17.3 million deaths worldwide1. Cardiovascular diseases are contributed by atherosclerosis, a condition in which plaques build up in the arteries, thereby inhibiting blood and oxygen flow to the cells of the body2,3. The progression of atherosclerosis involves the thickening and hardening of arteries by an inflammatory response, irregular lipid metabolism, and plaque build-up, leading to plaque rupture and myocardial infarction4,5. Endothelial cells express cytokines and adhesion molecules, which include MCP-1 that binds to the C-C chemokine receptor (CCR2) found on the surface of monocytes6,7,8. Oxidized cholesterol converts monocytes to macrophages during the early stage of plaque formation, which amplifies the inflammatory response in the region and leads to tissue injury and the formation of unstable or vulnerable plaques9,10.
Traditionally, atherosclerosis is evaluated by assessing luminal stenosis by anatomical imaging using angiography or ultrasound11,12. However, these methods can only determine severe narrowing of the arterial wall and not the early stage of atherosclerosis, as initial plaque growth causes arterial remodeling to maintain artery size and blood flow rate12,13,14. Therefore, angiograms underrepresent atherosclerosis prevalence. Additionally, noninvasive imaging techniques such as single photon emission computed tomography, positron emission tomography, and magnetic resonance imaging have recently been used to characterize plaque morphology as they can provide initial details and characterization of plaques. However, these modalities are often limited by the lack of sensitivity, spatial resolution, or require the use of ionizing radiation, making imaging plaque progression at different stages much more challenging15,16,17. An imaging delivery system that would specifically identify plaques at different stages of atherosclerosis remains to be developed.
Nanoparticles have shown to be an emerging platform for in vivo plaque targeting and diagnostics18,19,20,21. In particular, PAMs are advantageous due to their chemical diversity and ability to accommodate a variety of moieties, compositions, sizes, shapes, and surface functionalization22. Peptide amphiphiles (PAs) consist of a hydrophilic, peptide "headgroup" attached to a hydrophobic tail, which are typically lipids; this amphiphilic structure confers self-assembling capabilities and allows for a multivalent display of peptides on the surface of the particle22,23,24. The peptide headgroups can affect the particle shape through folding and hydrogen bonding between peptides25. Peptides that fold through β-sheet interaction have been shown to form elongated micelles, while α-helical confirmation can form both spherical and elongated micelles22,23,24,25,26,27. Polyethylene glycol (PEG) linkers that shield the surface charge of the peptide can be placed between the hydrophilic peptide and the hydrophobic tail of PAMs, enhancing the availability of the nanoparticle in systemic circulation28,29,30,31. PAMs are also advantageous because they are biocompatible and have been shown to have a broad range of applications32,33. The water solubility of micelles offers an advantage over other nanoparticle-based systems such as certain polymeric nanoparticles that are not soluble in water and have to be suspended in solubilizers for injections34. Additionally, the ability to create PAMs that disassemble in response to a specific stimuli makes PAMs an attractive candidate for controlled intracellular drug delivery35.
By binding to the CCR2 receptor and accumulating in the aortic arch, PAMs were previously developed for monocyte targeting to monitor different stages of atherosclerotic lesions in the aorta9. In ApoE-/- mice, monocyte accumulation increases proportionally to plaque progression36. Furthermore, it was found that patients with rupture-prone, late-stage plaques contain higher amounts of monocytes37. Therefore, the modification of PAMs to incorporate MCP-1 is useful because it allows for greater targeting specificity and differentiation between early- and late-stage atherosclerotic lesions. These proof-of-concept studies also verified that PAMs are safe enough to be used pre-clinically and are cleared renally38. Since monocytes and inflammation are characteristic to other diseases, MCP-1 PAMs have the potential to be used for therapeutic and diagnostic applications in other diseases beyond atherosclerosis8,39,40,41.
Herein, we report the fabrication of highly scalable and self-assembled MCP-1 PAMs that demonstrated the particle's optimal size, surface charge, and selective targeting to monocytes for enhanced imaging applications in atherosclerosis.
NOTE: Read the MSDS for reagents and follow all chemical safety measures as required by local institution.
1. Preparation of MCP-1 PAMs
2. Characterization of MCP-1 PAMs
3. In Vitro Analysis of MCP-1 PAMs
Preparation of MCP-1 PAM
The CCR2-binding motif (residues 13-35) of the MCP-1 protein [YNFTNRKISVQRLASYRRITSSK] or scrambled peptide [YNSLVFRIRNSTQRKYRASIST] was modified by adding a cysteine residue on the N-terminus. The MCP-1 peptide was synthesized by a Fmoc-mediated solid-phase method using an automated peptide synthesizer. The crude peptide was purified by reverse-phase HPLC on a C8 column at 50 °C using 0.1% TFA in acetonitrile/water mixtures and characterized by MALDI mass spectrometry (Figure 1). The cysteine-containing peptide was conjugated onto DSPE-PEG2000-maleimide to yield DSPE-PEG(2000)-peptide conjugates via a thioether linkage. After 24 h at room temperature, the crude product was purified by HPLC (Figure 2). DSPE-PEG(2000)-Cy5 was synthesized using an NHS ester reaction. Monocyte-targeting PAMs co-assembled with DSPE-PEG(2000)-MCP-1 and DSPE-PEG(2000)-Cy5 were fabricated by dissolving in methanol that was then evaporated by N2, and the resulting film was dried under vacuum overnight and self-assembled in water or PBS through the hydrophobic interactions of the "tail groups" to form MCP-1 PAMs.
Characterization of MCP-1 PAM
DLS data and TEM images of monocyte-targeting PAMs showed well-dispersed, spherical nanoparticle of 15.3 ± 2.0 nm in diameter (Figure 3 and Table 1). Both MCP-1 PAMs and scrambled PAMs showed a slight positive zeta potential of 12.1 ± 3.1 mV and 13.7 ± 1.9 mV, respectively (Table 1). CD showed that the incorporation of the MCP-1 peptide within the micelle enhanced the secondary structure (Table 2, MCP-1 PAMs: 46.2 ± 0.9% β-sheet, 53.1 ± 1.4% random coil, and free MCP1: 34.2 ± 3.5% β-sheet, 65.8 ± 3.5% random coil).
In Vitro Analysis of MCP-1 PAM
In vitro biocompatibility and monocyte binding of MCP-1 PAMs were observed by confocal microscopy. Mouse monocytes were incubated with increasing concentrations of MCP-1, MCP-1 PAM, scrambled peptide, and scrambled PAM for 72 h, and the cells were found to be viable and biocompatible up to 100 µM (Figure 4). Furthermore, confocal microscopy showed specific binding of monocytes to MCP-1 PAMs when compared to scrambled PAMs (Figure 5).
Figure 1: HPLC chromatogram at 220 nm (wavelength of peptide bonds) and 254 nm (tyrosine wavelength) of MCP-1 peptide (A) and scrambled peptide (B) (Boxed peak at 7.4 min). MALDI-TOF mass spectrum of MCP-1 peptide (C) and scrambled peptide (D) at a range of 500-5,000 Da showing the peak for [M+H]+ at m/z 2,888 (expected 2,890). Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.
Figure 2: HPLC chromatogram at 220 nm (wavelength of peptide bonds) and 254 nm (tyrosine wavelength) of DSPE-PEG(2000)-MCP-1 (A) and DSPE-PEG(2000)-scrambled (B). (Boxed peak at 16.9 min). (C) MALDI-TOF mass spectrum of DSPE-PEG(2000)-MCP-1 at a range of 1,000-10,000 Da showing the peaks for [M+H]+ at m/z 2,888 (expected 2,890) for MCP-1 and m/z 5,758 (expected 5,760) for DSPE-PEG(2000)-MCP-1. (D) MALDI-TOF mass spectrum of DSPE-PEG(2000)-scrambled at a range of 1,000-10,000 Da showing the peaks for [M+H]+ at m/z 2,887 (expected 2,890) for scrambled peptide and m/z 5,761 (expected 5,760) for DSPE-PEG-scrambled. Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.
Figure 3: TEM images of MCP-1 PAM (A) and scrambled PAM (B). Scale bar = 100 nm. Number-average size distribution of MCP-1 PAM (C) and scrambled PAM via DLS (D). Data are mean ± S.D. (n = 3). (E) CD analysis of MCP-1 and scrambled peptides and PAMs (n = 3). Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.
Figure 4: In vitro viability of WEHI 274.1 murine monocytes after 72 h exposure to MCP-1 peptide, MCP-1 PAM, scrambled peptide, and scrambled PAM. Data are mean ± S.D. (n = 6). Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.
Figure 5: CLSM images of MCP-1 PAM (A) and scrambled PAM (B) incorporated with 10 mol% Cy5 PA (red) incubated with WEHI 274.1 for 1 h. Scale Bar = 20 µm. Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.
PAMs | Number-Ave diameter (nm) | PDI | Zeta Potential (mV) |
MCP-1 | 15.3 ± 2.0 | 0.119 ± 0.006 | 12.1 ± 3.1 |
Scrambled | 16.9 ± 1.4 | 0.232 ± 0.019 | 13.7 ± 1.9 |
Measured in PBS buffer. Data are expressed as mean ± SD. |
Table 1: Size, polydispersity, and zeta potential of PAMs.
a-Helix (%) | b-Sheet (%) | Random Coil (%) | |
MCP-1 peptide | 0.0 ± 0.0 | 36.2 ± 2.2 | 63.8 ± 1.8 |
MCP-1 PAM | 0.7 ± 0.6 | 46.2 ± 0.9 | 53.1 ± 1.4 |
Scrambled peptide | 0.0 ± 0.0 | 43.7 ± 2.1 | 56.3 ± 3.5 |
Scrambled PAM | 0.0 ± 0.0 | 60.7 ± 0.2 | 39.3 ± 0.2 |
Table 2: Secondary structure composition of peptides and PAMs.
MCP-1 PAMs are a promising molecular imaging platform, consisting of a hydrophilic targeting peptide and hydrophobic tail that drives the self-assembled nature of the nanoparticle. This monocyte-targeting micelle can be prepared by simple synthesis and purification steps of the MCP-1 peptide and DSPE-PEG(2000)-MCP-1. PAMs have many beneficial characteristics for in vivo molecular imaging such as their self-assembly under mild conditions, intrinsic biodegradability, and structural and chemical diversity allowing for the incorporation of other imaging moieties or targeting peptides to selectively deliver to a specific site of interest. Their particle size, shape, and composition can be tuned by changing the peptide, hydrophobic tail, or micelle concentration, allowing optimal chemical and physical properties for a variety of applications22,33.
A few limitations of this protocol should be mentioned. First, since PAMs are driven by hydrophobic interactions, it is necessary to construct targeting peptides that are hydrophilic, thereby allowing the targeting moiety to be presented on the surface of the micelle. If the peptide sequence is hydrophobic, an addition of one or two hydrophilic amino acids at the C terminus can be accommodated, but the addition of amino acids could affect the peptide secondary structure within the micelle, thereby changing the properties of the peptide within its native state in the protein44,45. Second, at low concentrations, PAMs have poor stability in aqueous environments as they are highly dependent on the CMC, the minimum concentration needed for PAs to form a micellar structure46. Below the CMC, the micelle disassembles to individual PA monomers, and limits the micelle to act as a carrier and unload a drug at a specific site47. To alleviate this drawback, the CMC can be decreased by increasing the chain length of the hydrophobic tail48,49. Finally, the long-term storage of PAMs in solution is not recommended as PA secondary structure can change with time, thereby affecting the micellar structure and stability, as well as efficiency in ligand binding26.
In sum, this protocol demonstrates a robust, self-assembled peptide micelle-based nanomedicine strategy for imaging atherosclerosis. MCP-1 PAMs are biocompatible, biodegradable, and nontoxic as components of the micelle are inspired from elements endogenous to the body. More importantly, MCP-1 PAMs have preferential binding to monocytes, which increase proportionally to plaque progression, facilitating a non-invasive approach to differentiating stages of atherosclerotic plaques. Due to the modularity of this platform, PAMs can incorporate therapeutics, additional targeting peptides, imaging moieties, and nucleic acids. Hence, given such dynamic capabilities of these multifunctional micelles, we believe that these particles hold great promise for clinical translation in atherosclerosis and other diseases.
The authors have nothing to disclose.
The authors would like to acknowledge the financial support from the University of Southern California, the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI), R00HL124279, Eli and Edythe Broad Innovation Award, and the L.K. Whittier Foundation Non-Cancer Translational Research Award granted to EJC. The authors thank the Center for Electron Microscopy and Microanalysis, Center of Excellence in NanoBiophysics, Center of Excellence for Molecular Characterization, and Translational Imaging Center at the University of Southern California for assistance in instrumental setups.
1,2-ethanedithiol | VWR | E0032 | for peptide synthesis |
10 mL disposable serological pipets | VWR | 89130-898 | for cell culture |
15 mL centrifuge tubes, polypropylene | VWR | 89401-566 | for various applications |
2,5-dihydroxybenzoic acid, 99% | Fisher Scientific | AC165200050 | for MALDI |
25 mL disposable serological pipets | VWR | 89130-900 | for cell culture |
2-Mercaptoethanol, 50 mM | ThermoFisher Scientific | 31350010 | for cell culture |
5 mL disposable serological pipets | VWR | 89130-896 | for cell culture |
50 mL centrifuge tubes | VWR | 89039-658 | for various applications |
75 cm2 culture flask | Fisher Scientific | 13-680-65 | for cell culture |
75 mL reaction vessel | Protein Technologies | 3000005 | for peptide synthesis |
96-wells cell culture plate | VWR | 40101-346 | for MTS assay |
Acetonitrile, HPLC grade | Fisher Scientific | A998SK-4 | for HPLC purification |
Borosilicate glass, 1 dram | VWR | 66011-041 | for PAM synthesis |
Borosillicate glass pipet, Long tips | VWR | 14673-043 | for various applications |
Coverslip, 0.16-0.19 mm, 22 x 22 mm | Fisher Scientific | 12-542B | for confocal microscopy |
Cy5 amine | Abcam | ab146463 | for peptide conjugation |
Diethyl ether, ACS grade | Fisher Scientific | E138-1 | for peptide precipitation |
Disposable syringes, 20 mL | Fisher Scientific | 14-817-54 | for HPLC purification |
Double neubauer ruled hemocytometer | VWR | 63510-13 | for cell counting |
DSPE-PEG(2000) amine | Avanti | 880128P | for peptide conjugation |
DSPE-PEG(2000) maleimide | Avanti | 880126P | for peptide conjugation |
DSPE-PEG(2000)-NHS ester | Nanocs | PG2-DSNS-10K | for conjugation to Cy5 |
Dulbecco's modified eagle medium-high glucose | Sigma Aldrich | D5796-500ML | for cell culture |
Fetal bovine serum, qualified, heat inactivated | ThermoFisher Scientific | 10438026 | for cell culture |
Fmoc-L-Ala-OH /HBTU | Protein Technologies | PS3-H5-A | for peptide synthesis |
Fmoc-L-Arg(Pbf)-OH /HBTU | Protein Technologies | PS3-H5-RBF | for peptide synthesis |
Fmoc-L-Asn(Trt)-OH /HBTU | Protein Technologies | PS3-H5-NT | for peptide synthesis |
Fmoc-L-Cys(Trt)-OH /HBTU | Protein Technologies | PS3-H5-CT | for peptide synthesis |
Fmoc-L-Gln(Trt)-OH /HBTU | Protein Technologies | PS3-H5-QT | for peptide synthesis |
Fmoc-L-Ile-OH /HBTU | Protein Technologies | PS3-H5-I | for peptide synthesis |
Fmoc-L-Leu-OH /HBTU | Protein Technologies | PS3-H5-L | for peptide synthesis |
Fmoc-L-Lys(Boc)-OH /HBTU | Protein Technologies | PS3-H5-KBC | for peptide synthesis |
Fmoc-L-Phe-OH /HBTU | Protein Technologies | PS3-H5-F | for peptide synthesis |
Fmoc-L-Ser(tBu)-OH /HBTU | Protein Technologies | PS3-H5-SB | for peptide synthesis |
Fmoc-L-Thr(tBu)-OH /HBTU | Protein Technologies | PS3-H5-TB | for peptide synthesis |
Fmoc-L-Tyr(tBu)-OH /HBTU | Protein Technologies | PS3-H5-YB | for peptide synthesis |
Fmoc-L-Val-OH /HBTU | Protein Technologies | PS3-H5-V | for peptide synthesis |
Fmoc-Lys(Boc)-wang resin, 100-200 mesh | Novabiochem | 856013 | for peptide synthesis |
Formic acid, optima LC/MS grade | Fisher Scientific | A117-50 | for HPLC purification |
Glycerol | VWR | M152-1L | for confocal microscopy |
Hand tally counter | Fisher Scientific | S90189 | for cell counting |
Magnetic stir bars, egg-shaped | VWR | 58949-006 | for peptide conjugation |
Methanol, ACS certified | Fisher Scientific | A412-4 | for PAM synthesis |
MTS cell proliferation colorimetric assay kit | VWR | 10191-104 | for MTS assay |
N,N-Dimethylformamide, sequencing grade | Fisher Scientific | BP1160-4 | for peptide synthesis |
N-Methylmorpholine | Protein Technologies | S-1L-NMM | for peptide synthesis |
Paraformaldehyde | Fisher Scientific | AC416780250 | for fixing cells |
PBS, pH 7.4 | ThermoFisher Scientific | 10010049 | for various applications |
Penicillin/streptomycin, 10,000 U/mL | ThermoFisher Scientific | 15140122 | for cell culture |
Peptide synthesis vessel, 25 mL | Fisher Scientific | CG186011 | for peptide synthesis |
Phosphotungstic acid | Fisher Scientific | A248-25 | for TEM |
Piperidine | Spectrum | P1146-2.5LTGL | for peptide synthesis |
Plain glass microscope slide 75 x 25 mm | Fisher Scientific | 12-550-A3 | for confocal microscopy |
Reagent reservoirs, sterile | VWR | 95128093 | for cell culture |
Self-closing tweezer | TedPella | 515 | for TEM |
TEM support film | TedPella | 01814F | for TEM |
Trifluoroacetic acid | Fisher Scientific | BP618-500 | for peptide cleavage and HPLC purification |
Triisopropylsilane | VWR | TCT1533-5ml | for peptide cleavage |
Trypan blue solution, 0.4% | ThermoFisher Scientific | 15250061 | for cell counting |
Tweezer, general purpose-serrated | VWR | 231-SA-SE | for confocal microscopy |
WEHI-274.1 | ATCC | ATCC CRL-1679 | murine monocyte |
automated benchtop peptide synthesizer | Protein Technologies | PS3 Benchtop Peptide Synthesizer | |
α- cyano- 4- hydroxycinnamic acid, 99% | Sigma Aldrich | 476870-2G | for MALDI |